The Canadian Journal of Higher Education La revue canadienne d'enseignement supérieur Volume XXXI, No. 2,2001 pages 4 7 - 7 8 Against All Odds? The Enduring Value of Liberal Education in Universities, Professions, and the Labour Market* PAUL AXELROD, PAUL ANISEF, & ZENG LIN York University, York University & Illinois State University ABSTRACT The humanities, the social sciences and the fine arts — the core subjects of liberal education — are at risk in Canadian universities, and the danger arises largely f r o m the forced reorientation of higher education to assumed market needs. This paper attempts to explain why such policy shifts are occurring; it points to the continuing cultural, social and intellectual value of liberal education; and, drawing from recent and previously u n r e p o r t e d census data, it d e m o n s t r a t e s that liberal e d u c a t i o n produces generally positive economic benefits to the individual graduate. It concludes that policies designed to diminish the presence of libe r a l e d u c a t i o n in u n i v e r s i t i e s in f a v o u r o f m o r e supposedly " m a r k e t - w o r t h y " s u b j e c t s are s h o r t - s i g h t e d a n d t h r e a t e n i n g to the integrity and vitality of higher education. * This is a revised version of a paper Anisef, Axelrod, and Lin (1999) presented to the conference, "Trade Unions and Training: from Global Demands to Local Action" Université Laval, May 29, 1999. The conference was sponsored by the Labour Education and Training Research Network which is administered by York University's Centre for Research on Work on Society. The Network also provided research support for this paper. 48 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin RÉSUMÉ L e s lettres, les s c i e n c e s sociales et les arts — les d o m a i n e s d ' é t u d e f o r m a n t le n o y a u d u r d e l ' é d u c a t i o n libérale — sont à r i s q u e d a n s les u n i v e r s i t é s c a n a d i e n n e s , e t l e d a n g e r v i e n t p r i n c i p a l e m e n t d e la réorganisation forcée de l'éducation supérieure pour répondre aux d e m a n d e s du marché. Cet article tente d'expliquer pourquoi ces c h a n g e m e n t s d e p o l i t i q u e s e p r o d u i s e n t ; il s ' i n t é r e s s e à la v a l e u r c u l t u r e l l e , sociale et intellectuelle d e l ' é d u c a t i o n libérale; et, s ' i n s p i r a n t d e s d o n n é e s d e r é c e n t s r e c e n s e m e n t s et d ' a u t r e s précédemment e f f e c t u é s , il d é m o n t r e q u e l ' é d u c a t i o n libérale p r o d u i t g é n é r a l e m e n t des a v a n t a g e s é c o n o m i q u e s c h e z ses g r a d u é s . C e t a r t i c l e c o n c l u t q u e les p o l i t i q u e s s e r v a n t à d i m i n u e r la p r é s e n c e d e l ' é d u c a t i o n libérale d a n s les u n i v e r s i t é s à la f a v e u r d e p r o g r a m m e s soit disant plus v a l a b l e s p o u r le m a r c h é s o n t à c o u r t e v u e et m e n a c e l ' i n t é g r i t é et la v i t a l i t é de l'éducation supérieure. INTRODUCTION T h e h u m a n i t i e s , the social s c i e n c e s a n d the f i n e arts — the c o r e subj e c t s o f liberal e d u c a t i o n — are at risk in C a n a d i a n universities, a n d t h e d a n g e r arises largely f r o m the f o r c e d reorientation of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n to a s s u m e d m a r k e t n e e d s . T h i s p a p e r a t t e m p t s to explain w h y s u c h p o l i c y s h i f t s are o c c u r r i n g ; it p o i n t s to the c o n t i n u i n g cultural, social a n d intell e c t u a l v a l u e of liberal e d u c a t i o n ; a n d , d r a w i n g f r o m r e c e n t a n d p r e v i o u s l y u n r e p o r t e d c e n s u s d a t a , it d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n p r o d u c e s g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s to the i n d i v i d u a l g r a d u ate. It c o n c l u d e s that p o l i c i e s d e s i g n e d to d i m i n i s h the p r e s e n c e of liberal education in u n i v e r s i t i e s in f a v o u r o f m o r e supposedly " m a r k e t - w o r t h y " s u b j e c t s are s h o r t - s i g h t e d and t h r e a t e n i n g to the integrity a n d vitality o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 49 THE CONTEXT OF CHANGE Universities have struggled in the past, but as Paul Axelrod (1998) has observed: recent funding cuts appear to have been accompanied by an a p p a r e n t sea of c h a n g e in p u b l i c policy. T h e p r i n c i p l e of a m p l e public funding to relatively autonomous universities, which enabled a diverse academic curricula — including the liberal arts — to grow and thrive, is in question. The doctrines of globalization, privatization, institutional competition, market-driven programming, and user-pay fee schedules are now pushing at the gates of higher learning, (pp. 6 - 7 ) P o l i c y m a k e r s and b u s i n e s s leaders n o w tend to f a v o u r w h a t Sheila Slaughter and Larry Leslie (1997) call "academic capitalism" As Kjell R u b e n s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) n o t e s , t h e p o l i c y f o c u s i n c r e a s i n g l y is o n t h e "exchange value" of education. In this world students pay a far higher portion of university costs, corporations play a growing role in shaping university policy, university funding is tied more and more to graduate employment "outcomes," research support from the public and private sector is driven increasingly by business and high technology needs, and faculty entrepreneurialism and private universities are fostered. (See also Tudiver, 1999; Wilson, 1999). For Peter Godsoe (1996), C E O of Scotiabank, these types of polices are both desirable and inevitable: Our university system will see a period of rationalization over the next decade; overlapping programs must be eliminated or merged, and greater efficiencies in program delivery and in administration will have to be found and d e v e l o p e d . . . We need to unbundle our funding and allow universities to comp e t e f o r r e s e a r c h grants; w e n e e d to t o l e r a t e v a r i a t i o n in tuition fees to promote institutional excellence; and we need to permit private institutions to play a role in our university system. Let the market, not the government, determine which universities succeed and where our centres of excellence are. (pp. 4 2 , 4 5 ) . The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 50 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin In late 1997, P r e m i e r M i k e H a r r i s o f O n t a r i o q u e s t i o n e d the " s u r p l u s " n u m b e r of u n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s in f i e l d s such as g e o g r a p h y a n d sociolo g y , a n d in M a r c h 2 0 0 0 , h i s g o v e r n m e n t i n t r o d u c e d a " p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c a t o r " s y s t e m w h i c h ties a p o r t i o n o f a u n i v e r s i t y ' s f u n d i n g to the e m p l o y m e n t experiences of university graduates, a practice pioneered s e v e r a l y e a r s earlier in A l b e r t a ( M a l i e n & R u s h o w y , 2 0 0 0 ) . I n addition, in the p r e v i o u s m o n t h , O n t a r i o a n n o u n c e d a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m m e f o r the p r o v i n c e ' s u n i v e r s i t i e s ( 5 0 % o f w h i c h is e x p e c t e d to b e f u n d e d b y the p r i v a t e sector) w h i c h is a l m o s t entirely oriented to a p p l i e d sciences, b u s i n e s s a n d t e c h n o l o g y , a n d " a w a y f r o m the h u m a n i t i e s a n d social sciences" (Ibbitson, 2000). W h y should a n y o n e be concerned about these trends? Isn't the a t t e m p t to r e a p h i g h e r i n v e s t m e n t s f r o m a m o r e e f f i c i e n t u n i v e r s i t y syst e m e c o n o m i c a l l y r a t i o n a l a n d p o l i t i c a l l y d e f e n s i b l e ? If s t u d e n t s a r e u n l i k e l y to o b t a i n g o o d j o b s w h e n t h e y g r a d u a t e , s h o u l d n ' t t h e y b e disc o u r a g e d f r o m enrolling in t h o s e p r o g r a m s that a p p e a r to o f f e r s u b s t a n d a r d e m p l o y m e n t p r o s p e c t s ? S h o u l d n ' t f u n d i n g b e directed a w a y f r o m the h u m a n i t i e s , t h e social s c i e n c e s a n d the f i n e arts to m o r e m a r k e t - w o r t h y p r o g r a m s s u c h as b u s i n e s s , c o m p u t e r science, e n g i n e e r i n g , a n d various high technology programs? We question these assumptions and c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d a r g u e that not o n l y d o the liberal arts p a y off, b u t that their d e m i s e w o u l d d a m a g e C a n a d i a n social a n d intellectual life. WHAT IS LIBERAL EDUCATION? T h e c o n c e p t o f liberal e d u c a t i o n is filled w i t h p a r a d o x . It is at o n c e the m o s t e n d u r i n g a n d c h a n g e a b l e of a c a d e m i c traditions. It o w e s its orig i n s to t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d t e a c h i n g practices of A n c i e n t G r e e c e and, arguably, continues to e m b r a c e certain core values f r o m that era. A c c o r d i n g to V a n d e r l e e s t ( 1 9 9 6 ) , t h e s e i n c l u d e the d e v e l o p m e n t of the w h o l e person, the cultivation of character and citizenship, and the a c h i e v e m e n t in l e a r n i n g a n d l i v i n g o f b a l a n c e a n d h a r m o n y (see also, R o t h b l a t t , 1993). B u t there h a v e b e e n , a n d r e m a i n , d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s to a c h i e v i n g t h e s e e n d s . W h i l e s o m e liberal e d u c a t o r s h a v e stressed a " c l a s s i c a l p h i l o s o p h i c t r a d i t i o n " w h i c h steeps the student in ancient a n d The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 51 biblical texts, others have e m b r a c e d the " h u m a n i s t i c " perspective, w h i c h , largely t h r o u g h literature, exposes readers to the breadth of h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , s e e k i n g , t h e r e b y to " f i t " t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r " f r e e d o m " Yet a n o t h e r f a c e t of liberal e d u c a t i o n is that w h i c h e m p l o y s the " s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d " t h r o u g h w h i c h r e s e a r c h specialists are t r a i n e d to d i s c o v e r n e w k n o w l e d g e . Finally, the " t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y p r a g m a t i c v i s i o n " e n c o u r a g e s s t u d e n t s to treat all c l a i m s to truth s k e p t i c a l l y , to p r o b l e m - s o l v e , a n d to a t t e m p t to m a k e e d u c a t i o n a n i n s t r u m e n t o f social c h a n g e a n d t h e social g o o d ( G l y e r & W e e k s , 1998; R o t h b l a t t , 1993). B r u c e A . K i m b a l l ( 1 9 9 5 ) c h a r a c t e r i z e s the o n g o i n g d e b a t e a m o n g liberal e d u c a t o r s as o n e w h i c h pits " p h i l o s o p h e r s " against " o r a t o r s . " T h e f o r m e r b e l i e v e t h a t " t h e p u r s u i t o f k n o w l e d g e is t h e h i g h e s t g o o d " (p. xvii), a n d that truth itself is m u t a b l e . T h e latter c o n t e n d that the prim a r y g o a l of the u n i v e r s i t y is to t e a c h that w h i c h is k n o w n , a n d to instill in s t u d e n t s the skills r e q u i r e d to express s u c h e n d u r i n g truths. M o s t recently, the A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n C o l l e g e s a n d Universities ( 1 9 9 9 ) o f f e r e d this rather e c u m e n i c a l c o n c e p t i o n of liberal learning: A t r u l y l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n is o n e t h a t p r e p a r e s u s t o l i v e r e s p o n s i b l e , p r o d u c t i v e , a n d c r e a t i v e lives in a d r a m a t i c a l l y c h a n g i n g w o r l d . I t is a n e d u c a t i o n t h a t f o s t e r s a w e l l g r o u n d e d intellectual resilience, a disposition t o w a r d l i f e l o n g l e a r n i n g , a n d a n a c c e p t a n c e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e ethical consequences of our ideas and actions... Because liberal l e a r n i n g a i m s to f r e e u s f r o m t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f i g n o r a n c e , s e c t a r i a n i s m , a n d s h o r t s i g h t e d n e s s , it p r i z e s c u r i o s i t y a n d s e e k s to e x p a n d the b o u n d a r i e s of h u m a n k n o w l e d g e . B y its n a t u r e , t h e r e f o r e , liberal learning is g l o b a l a n d pluralistic. It e m b r a c e s the diversity of ideas and e x p e r i e n c e s that c h a r a c terize t h e social, n a t u r a l a n d intellectual w o r l d . . . (pp. 6 - 7 ) . O n e c o u l d a d d that, ideally, liberal e d u c a t o r s require students to d e m o n strate t h e ability to t h i n k analytically, to q u e s t i o n r e c e i v e d w i s d o m , to e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s clearly (orally a n d in writing), to a p p l y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d t h e o r i e s to a text or real life situations, a n d to c u l t i v a t e o n e ' s o w n p h i l o s o p h y and sense of values (see also Schneider & S h o e n b e r g , 1998). A s J a m e s O. F r e e d m a n ( 1 9 9 6 ) c o n t e n d s , liberal The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 52 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d " h e l p s t u d e n t s to d e v e l o p an i n d e p e n d e n t p e r s p e c t i v e f o r r e f l e c t i n g o n t h e n a t u r e and the texture o f their l i v e s . . . M o r e [than a n y t h i n g ] it c o n v e y s to s t u d e n t s a sense o f j o y in the learning — a j o y in p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e life of the m i n d . " (p. 2). C o n c e p t i o n s o f liberal e d u c a t i o n , then, r u n the risk of b e i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y or e x c e e d i n g l y b r o a d , a n d t h e literature is r i f e w i t h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a n d p l a t i t u d e s . Still, w e b e l i e v e t h a t a m e a n i n g f u l d e f i n i t i o n o f liberal e d u c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e , b o t h f o r the p u r p o s e s o f this paper, a n d for p u r p o s e s of c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . O u r d e f i n i t i o n a t t e m p t s to r e f l e c t the traditions a n d d y n a m i s m o f liberal e d u c a t i o n , a n d its c o n t i n u i n g p e r t i n e n c e to society. Liberal e d u c a t i o n in the u n i v e r s i t y r e f e r s to activities w h i c h are d e s i g n e d to cultivate intellectual creativity, a u t o n o m y a n d resilience; critical t h i n k i n g ; a c o m b i n a t i o n of intellectual b r e a d t h a n d s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e ; the c o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d t o l e r a n c e o f d i v e r s e ideas a n d e x p e r i e n c e s ; i n f o r m e d participation in c o m m u n i t y life, a n d e f f e c t i v e c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills. T h e s e goals are u s u a l l y p u r s u e d in the h u m a n i t i e s , social sciences, a n d fine arts (generally d e e m e d the "liberal arts"), b u t as w e a r g u e b e l o w , t h e y can and s h o u l d b e integrated into scientific, t e c h n i c a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n . T h e n o t i o n o f c u l t i v a t i n g " i n t e l l e c t u a l creativity," " a u t o n o m y " a n d " r e s i l i e n c e " links c o n c e p t i o n s o f liberal e d u c a t i o n f r o m the past a n d present. L i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d e n a b l e individuals (students a n d p r o f e s s o r s alike) to e x p a n d their intellectual h o r i z o n s a n d to c o n t i n u e that p r o c e s s o u t s i d e f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a l experiences. " A u t o n o m y , " a m o r e c o n t e m p o r a r y g o a l , e n c o u r a g e s t h e s t u d e n t a n d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r to e n g a g e in s c h o l a r s h i p that is u n c o n s t r a i n e d b y external authority. This, i n d e e d , is the f o u n d a t i o n o f a c a d e m i c f r e e d o m . D o g m a t i s m in the classr o o m , o r dictation o f r e s e a r c h o u t c o m e s b y supervisors or sponsors, h a v e n o p l a c e in t h e university. Similarly, "critical t h i n k i n g " u n d e r l i n e s t h e v a l u e o f q u e s t i o n i n g received w i s d o m on the basis, not m e r e l y o f instinct or o p i n i o n , b u t o f i n f o r m e d analysis a n d understanding. Requiring a combination of "intellectual breadth and specialized k n o w l e d g e " a t t e m p t s to b r i d g e d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f the u n i v e r sity's role. R e c a l l i n g the m i d - n i n e t e e n t h century educational p h i l o s o p h y o f C a r d i n a l N e w m a n , p r o p o n e n t s of traditional f o r m s o f liberal e d u c a t i o n The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 53 see specialized studies as f r a g m e n t i n g and n a r r o w i n g a c a d e m i c life, a n d denying students a coherent, integrated body of knowledge (Wagner, 1998). T h o s e w h o f a v o u r specialized study p o i n t to the c o n t i n u o u s explosion of k n o w l e d g e in the arts and sciences; in d e p t h study o f at least o n e s u b j e c t gives students valuable e x p e r i e n c e in exploring the literature of a d i s c i p l i n e f r o m w h i c h o r i g i n a l i d e a s a n d r e s e a r c h f l o w (Little, 1998). W i t h o u t o f f e r i n g a n y specific curricular f o r m u l a t i o n , w e believe that general e d u c a t i o n and s p e c i a l i z e d s t u d y h a v e a central p l a c e in u n i v e r s i t y life, a n d that the liberally e d u c a t e d require e x p o s u r e to both. C u l t i v a t i n g " t o l e r a n c e of d i v e r s e ideas a n d e x p e r i e n c e s " is p e r h a p s t h e m o s t c u r r e n t c o n c e p t t h a t w e b e l i e v e o u g h t to b e i n t e g r a l to t h e ideals o f liberal e d u c a t i o n . In p o s i t i n g this principle, w e r e j e c t the n o t i o n t h a t a single, u n i v e r s a l b o d y (or c a n o n ) of t h o u g h t can b e s u c c e s s f u l l y i m p o s e d u p o n a u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l u m . T h r o u g h o u t history, the curricul u m h a s e v o l v e d , in part at least, in r e s p o n s e to n e w e r c o n s t i t u e n c i e s of students. F o r e x a m p l e , the s p r e a d o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n in the late n i n e t e e n t h a n d early t w e n t i e t h centuries r e f l e c t e d the interests of m i d d l e class f a m i l i e s in p r e p a r i n g y o u t h for secure a n d prestigious e m p l o y m e n t ( A x e l r o d , 1990; B l e d s t e i n , 1976). T h e g r o w i n g p r e s e n c e in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n o f f e m a l e students, p a r t i c u l a r l y since the 1960s, a n d o f cultural and racial minorities, has been a c c o m p a n i e d by the n e w fields of w o m e n ' s studies a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l studies. C o n t r o v e r s y has f r e q u e n t l y f o l l o w e d the i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e s e s u b j e c t s into t h e c u r r i c u l u m , b u t w e b e l i e v e that the s c h o l a r l y diversity t h e y h a v e g e n e r a t e d h a s e n r i c h e d acad e m i c life. A t t h e s a m e time, m u c h r e m a i n s to b e g a i n e d f r o m the c o n t i n u i n g s t u d y o f c l a s s i c a l w e s t e r n t e x t s a n d p h i l o s o p h i e s . H e n c e , the n e e d f o r o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s a n d " t o l e r a n c e " if u n i v e r s i t y life is to b e c o n d u c t e d civily, a n d if liberal e d u c a t i o n is to thrive. T h e n o t i o n o f p r e p a r i n g y o u n g p e o p l e f o r t h e i r r o l e as c i t i z e n s r e a c h e s b a c k to a n c i e n t times. In the m o d e r n era, e c h o i n g the w o r k of J o h n D e w e y , l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n is o f t e n l i n k e d t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f " d e m o c r a t i c " v a l u e s ( S i m p s o n & J a c k s o n , 1997). W e a g r e e w i t h this sentiment, but w e prefer the somewhat broader concept of "informed p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c o m m u n i t y l i f e . " C o m m u n i t i e s c o n s i s t of citizens a n d n o n - c i t i z e n s , a n d o f c o n s t i t u e n c i e s w h o s e d e f i n i t i o n s o f d e m o c r a c y vary. The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 54 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin The important point is that the liberally-educated ought to be willing and able to contribute to the e n r i c h m e n t of the c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h they inhabit. Liberal education should serve to connect, not to isolate, academ i c and community life. Should liberal education foster "communication skills?" Despite the technical tone of this goal, we believe that all academics are, or should be, e n g a g e d in this task. T h i n k i n g originally, researching creatively, writing clearly and speaking persuasively intrinsically reward the individual and serve him or her well in the world beyond the university We have defined the goals of liberal education in these ways because w e believe they draw from the best of traditional and contemporary academic values, reflecting both the enduring characteristics and dynamic nature of liberal education itself. Notwithstanding the debates that such discussions will invariably stimulate, w e believe that university courses in the arts, sciences and professions should be mounted and assessed in light of their ability to achieve these aims. SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION W h i l e liberal educators h a v e b e e n k n o w n to disagree p r o f o u n d l y with each other, all would likely concur that an educational approach w h i c h f o c u s e s exclusively on technical training is sorely lacking. A s Charles W. Anderson (1993) argues, "a principal aim of teaching is to bring students to see the pattern behind the great structured systems of rational i n q u i r y " (p. 186). M u c h technical knowledge, after all, has a limited life span. Consider, for example, the fate of computer programmers in the 1970s w h o believed that their knowledge of the C O B O L and F O R T R A N p r o g r a m m i n g systems would secure their positions in the industry for the foreseeable future. These systems, however, were quickly superseded by n e w programming methods some of which in turn b e c a m e all but obsolete (Armstrong & Casement 1998; McPherson & Schapiro, 1999). T h o s e w h o a s s u m e that higher education is merely about dealing with " k n o w n problems in known ways," and who theref o r e l a c k t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s i l i e n c e to l e a r n n e w skills, c o p e w i t h uncertainty, or even change fields are potential casualties in the world of The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 55 e m p l o y m e n t ( L i p m a n - B l u m e n , 1995). In e n c o u r a g i n g students to q u e s t i o n r e c e i v e d w i s d o m a n d to p r o b e s u c h topics the relationship b e t w e e n t e c h n o l o g y a n d social c h a n g e , liberal e d u c a t i o n can e f f e c t i v e l y b r o a d e n the p e r s p e c t i v e s of e n g i n e e r i n g , c o m p u t e r science, a n d other t e c h n i c a l l y m i n d e d students. T h o u g h t h e y are not a l w a y s h e e d e d b y c o m p a n y r e c r u i t m e n t officers, c o r p o r a t i o n C E O s h a v e periodically called for the hiring of t h o s e trained in the liberal arts over the n a r r o w l y qualified b u s i n e s s s c h o o l graduate. A s far b a c k as 1959, the p r e s i d e n t of Imperial Oil praised liberal education f o r b r o a d e n i n g s t u d e n t s ' intellectual horizons, thereby m a k i n g t h e m especially v a l u a b l e in the w o r k f o r c e . " I n d u s t r y has f o u n d that it can train an e d u c a t e d m a n [sic] b u t it c a n n o t necessarily e d u c a t e the trained m a n [sic]" ( A x e l r o d , 1982, p. 107). L e a p to the 1990s, and M a t t h e w Barrett, f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t o f the B a n k o f Montreal, c o n t e n d s that: [It] is f a r m o r e i m p o r t a n t that students g r a d u a t e f r o m u n i v e r sity h a v i n g r e a d D a n t e , or the g r e a t historians of t o d a y a n d yesterday, then understanding the practice of double-entry a c c o u n t i n g . . . E d u c a t i o n s h o u l d i m p a r t fact, n o t training, not e v e n skills a b o v e essential literary a n d n u m e r a c y , b u t rather the " c r o s s - c u r r i c u l u m " abilities to reason, to i m a g i n e , to think laterally, a n d p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , to w e l c o m e l e a r n i n g as an essential part o f life. (Frank, 1997, p. 8) T h i s p o i n t is u n d e r l i n e d b y author, D o n Tapscott ( 1 9 9 9 ) , an e n t h u s i astic p r o p o n e n t o f the " d i g i t a l " universe. H e c o n t e n d s that there is a sign i f i c a n t s h o r t a g e o f skilled t e c h n o l o g y p r o f e s s i o n a l s in C a n a d a , a n d that u n i v e r s i t i e s m u s t e x p a n d their e n r o l m e n t s in fields such as e n g i n e e r i n g a n d c o m p u t e r science. B u t h e insists that: t h e digital e c o n o m y will also d e m a n d g r a d u a t e s of a liberal arts a n d s c i e n c e s e d u c a t i o n . Their e d u c a t i o n m a k e s t h e m f l e x ible and adaptable and gives them a valuable breadth of k n o w l e d g e , a n d b o l s t e r s t h e i r a b i l i t y to t h i n k a n d a n a l y z e . A n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t of all, it gives t h e m the ability to c o n t i n u e to learn t h r o u g h o u t life. (p. C 3 ) B u s i n e s s s t u d e n t s trained n a r r o w l y in o p e r a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s will, in all l i k e l i h o o d , p r o v e d less s u c c e s s f u l t h a n t h o s e c o m m e r c e g r a d u a t e s The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 56 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin w h o have s o m e understanding of social psychology, community d y n a m i c s , o r c u l t u r a l life in t h e c o u n t r i e s in w h i c h c o m p a n i e s i n v e s t — k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d t h r o u g h l i b e r a l arts e d u c a t i o n . A s M i c h a e l U s e e m (1995) notes, business practitioners w h o understand foreign languages and a community's environmental concerns bring breadth and added value to their w o r k p l a c e s that the less educated lack. F u r t h e r m o r e , J e f f r e y N e s t e r u k ( 1 9 9 9 ) , a b u s i n e s s ethics t e a c h e r a r g u e s that b u s i n e s s t e a c h i n g w h i c h i g n o r e s t h e p r i n c i p l e that " a l l k n o w l e d g e is r o o t e d in s e l f - k n o w l e d g e " is c o n s t r a i n i n g a n d p o t e n t i a l l y h a r m f u l . S e l f - k n o w l edge, he contends: is a n e c e s s a r y c o m p o n e n t in t h e c h a n g i n g r o l e o f b u s i n e s s m a n a g e r s . A s f u n c t i o n s m o r e traditionally p u b l i c b e c o m e priv a t i z e d , t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c l o o k s to e f f e c t i v e e x e c u t i v e s as s o c i a l l e a d e r s . To s u c c e s s f u l l y a d a p t to t h i s c h a n g i n g r o l e r e q u i r e s t h o s e in b u s i n e s s to r e g a r d t h e m s e l v e s in n e w w a y s , to b e s e l f - e v a l u a t i v e — a n d this d e p e n d s significantly on the f o u n d a t i o n o f w e l l - d e v e l o p e d habits o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n . " Ethical i s s u e s , f r o m " w h i s t l e - b l o w i n g " to " p r o d u c t s a f e t y " c o m p e l b u s i n e s s p e r s o n s to " w r e s t l e w i t h their o w n s t a n d a r d s of right a n d w r o n g , t h e i r self c o n c e p t i o n s a n d character, a n d their perc e p t i o n s o f t h e i r r o l e s in c o m p l e x c o m m e r c i a l " — a g a i n , issues central to liberal e d u c a t i o n , (p. 57) S u c h c o n c e r n s m a y w e l l e x p l a i n w h y c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r s in a m a j o r A m e r i c a n survey on the benefits of a college education had a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e on the v a l u e of h i g h e r l e a r n i n g t h a n did p a r e n t s a n d c o l l e g e - b o u n d s t u d e n t s . T h e latter t w o g r o u p s f o c u s s e d m o s t l y o n the s h o r t - t e r m o u t c o m e of " g e t t i n g a j o b , " w h i l e the f o r m e r c o n s i d e r e d , far m o r e f r e q u e n t l y , the l o n g - t e r m b e n e f i t s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . A s H e r s h ( 1 9 9 7 ) n o t e d , e m p l o y e r s in the s u r v e y w e r e p r e s u m a b l y n o less practic a l l y - m i n d e d t h a n p a r e n t s and students. B u t t o t h e m practicality m e a n s the ability of h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n to i m p a c t g e n e r a l skills that g i v e p e o p l e the f l e x i b i l i t y a n d c a p a c i t y to k e e p l e a r n i n g w h a t t o d a y ' s h i g h - t e c h b u s i n e s s e s r e q u i r e . . . T h e y insist that a c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n p r o d u c e p e o p l e of strong character with generalized intellectual and social skills a n d a c a p a c i t y for learning, (p. 188) The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 57 T h e particular facilities that h u m a n resource managers valued were t h r e e - f o l d : c o g n i t i v e ( p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , critical thinking, a n d learning to learn), p r e s e n t a t i o n a l (oral a n d written c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills) and social ( w o r k i n g c o o p e r a t i v e l y in a variety of settings). I n n o v a t i o n s in the m e d i c a l e d u c a t i o n field well illustrate the w a y s in w h i c h liberal studies, academic science, and clinical training can be e f f e c t i v e l y c o m b i n e d to i m p r o v e the q u a l i t y of m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e . Traditionally, m e d i c a l students h a v e b e e n steeped in a narrow, scientific e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s that c o n c e n t r a t e s o n the " d i s e a s e a n d n o t t h e p a t i e n t " C o m p l a i n t s in the 1930s that " t h e specialist l o o k s too f r e q u e n t l y u p o n t h e p r o b l e m o f the p a t i e n t solely f r o m the aspect of his specialty, rather t h a n f r o m the n e e d s o f the patient as a w h o l e " ( R a p p l e y e , 1932, p. 2 4 ) w e r e e c h o e d in 1 9 9 9 b y a p r o f e s s o r o f c l i n i c a l s u r g e r y at Yale w h o c l a i m e d that f a c u l t y m e m b e r s h a v e b e e n r e w a r d e d m o r e for specialized r e s e a r c h t h a n " f o r t e a c h i n g well, or for c a r i n g f o r (or e v e n a b o u t ) p a t i e n t s " ( N u l a n d , 1999, p. 124). N e w initiatives in m e d i c a l e d u c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , n o w f o c u s o n issues central to the social s c i e n c e s ( S c h m i d t , 1990). P e r h a p s the m o s t i n n o v a t i v e s u c h p r o g r a m is t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e n o w n M c M a s t e r M e d i c a l S c h o o l in H a m i l t o n , O n t a r i o . F o u n d e d in 1965, M c M a s t e r e m p l o y e d a d m i s s i o n p r o c e d u r e s a n d p e d a g o g y that d e p a r t e d d r a m a t i c a l l y f r o m t h e p r a c t i c e s of traditional m e d i c a l schools. W h i l e the latter h a v e c o m p e l l e d a p p l i c a n t s to h a v e a strong b a c k g r o u n d in the b i o l o g i c a l sciences, a n d to excel on the M e d i c a l C o l l e g e A d m i s s i o n Test, M c M a s t e r has not r e q u i r e d these, n o r h a s it p r i v i l e g e d c a n d i d a t e s w i t h h i g h grades. Instead, s t u d e n t s w i t h b a c k g r o u n d s in the h u m a n i t i e s and social sciences, t h o s e w i t h v a r i e d e x p e r i e n c e s a n d interests, a n d t h o s e c o m m i t t e d to g r o u p b a s e d , p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g learning strategies, are m o r e likely to b e a d m i t ted. In addition, r e c r u i t m e n t c o m m i t t e e s , w h i c h include current m e d i c a l s t u d e n t s , e n g a g e short-listed a p p l i c a n t s in p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w s ( u n l i k e m o s t m e d i c a l schools). T h r o u g h o u t the m e d i c a l training p r o g r a m , M c M a s t e r students m e e t in s m a l l g r o u p s led b y a f a c u l t y tutor. Various aspects o f a health p r o b l e m — r a n g i n g f r o m the b a s i c s c i e n c e c o n c e p t s n e e d e d to u n d e r s t a n d the P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y , The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 58 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin t h r o u g h the i m p a c t on t h e patient and the f a m i l y — are identif i e d b y g r o u p m e m b e r s w h o seek out the a p p r o p r i a t e learning r e s o u r c e s in o r d e r to a c q u i r e t h e k n o w l e d g e w i t h w h i c h to m a n a g e t h e p r o b l e m . T h e b a s i c a n d clinical sciences are p r e s e n t e d in an integrative m a n n e r , rather t h a n individually. T h e l e a r n i n g a p p r o a c h e m p h a s i z e s the student as an active learner a n d p l a c e s m o r e responsibility for their e d u c a t i o n o n students. L e c t u r e s , c a l l e d l a r g e - g r o u p r e s o u r c e s e s s i o n s , are f e w a n d a r e o p t i o n a l f o r t h e s t u d e n t . A b o u t 2 0 % o f t h e p r o g r a m is d e v o t e d to s t u d e n t - s e l e c t e d electives. ( W o o d w a r d , 1990, pp. 2 7 - 2 8 ) T h e p r o g r a m e n c o u r a g e s a n d s e e k s to i m p r o v e u p o n the " l i f e - l o n g learning h a b i t s o f p h y s i c i a n s " ( W o o d w a r d , 1990, p p . 27-28). S u r v e y e d r e g u larly, M c M a s t e r s t u d e n t s h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y p r a i s e d this a c t i v e f o r m o f instruction. In o r d e r to c o m p a r e its g r a d u a t e s w i t h t h o s e e l s e w h e r e , M c M a s t e r c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e and careers of its students b e t w e e n 1 9 7 6 a n d 1980. In t h e i r first p o s t - g r a d u a t e year, s u p e r v i s o r s f o u n d n o d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the p e r f o r m a n c e o f M c M a s t e r a n d n o n - M c M a s t e r graduates, nor were there observable differences between those with a s c i e n c e a n d n o n - s c i e n c e b a c k g r o u n d . T h u s , students trained in the arts p r o v e d , ultimately, to b e as a d e p t in the technical practice of m e d i c i n e as their scientifically-oriented colleagues. However, career patterns did v a r y . A s u r v e y o f all M c M a s t e r g r a d u a t e s f r o m 1 9 7 2 to 1 9 7 9 ( 7 5 % r e s p o n s e rate) u s e d t w o c o m p a r i s o n g r o u p s , o n e m a t c h e d w i t h M c M a s t e r g r a d u a t e s o n l y b y y e a r of g r a d u a t i o n , and a n o t h e r b y y e a r of g r a d u a t i o n , gender and age. The results showed that M c M a s t e r produced more p h y s i c i a n s w h o w e n t into t e a c h i n g , r e s e a r c h a n d administration, i.e. acad e m i c m e d i c i n e , t h a n a n y o t h e r m e d i c a l s c h o o l in C a n a d a ( W o o d w a r d , 1990). W h i l e it is p o s s i b l e that s o m e M c M a s t e r a l u m n i w e r e oriented to t e a c h i n g b e f o r e t h e y e n t e r e d m e d i c a l s c h o o l , it s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t t h e s c h o o l ' s alternative a d m i s s i o n a n d p e d a g o g i c a l p r a c t i c e s h a v e p l a y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t role in t u r n i n g out d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of g r a d u a t e s t h a n h a v e traditional schools. N o t a b l y , the m e d i c a l s c h o o l at S h e r b r o o k e U n i v e r s i t y in Q u e b e c , w h i c h a l s o e m p l o y s i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y a n d p r o b l e m - b a s e d learning, h a s g r a d u a t e d , a c c o r d i n g to M c P h e d r a n (1993), "socially The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 59 c o n s c i o u s g e n e r a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s . " In t h e p r o v i n c e ' s L o c a l C o m m u n i t y S e r v i c e s C e n t r e units located in " u n d e r s e r v i c e d " c o m m u n i t i e s , " h a l f the p o s i t i o n s are filled w i t h S h e r b r o o k e g r a d u a t e s . . . T h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m h a s s t i m u l a t e d other F r e n c h universities, in C a n a d a a n d a b r o a d , to r e v i e w a n d m o d i f y their c u r r i c u l a " ( M c P h e d r a n , 1993, p. 207). A n o t h e r m e d i c a l s c h o o l initiative f l o w e d f r o m a r e s o l u t i o n at t h e W o r l d S u m m i t on M e d i c a l E d u c a t i o n in 1993 w h i c h called u p o n m e d i c a l e d u c a t i o n to b e c o m e m o r e " c o m m u n i t y o r i e n t e d " to f o c u s s t u d e n t s ' attention o n "real w o r l d settings," a n d to e n c o u r a g e t h e m to " r e s p o n d to the n e e d s o f s o c i e t y " ( W a s y l e n k i et al., 1997). T h i s led to a n e w c o u r s e , n o w compulsory for University of Toronto medical students, called " H e a l t h , Illness a n d the C o m m u n i t y . " T h e c o u r s e r e q u i r e s s t u d e n t s in first a n d s e c o n d y e a r to s p e n d o n e h a l f - d a y p e r w e e k w o r k i n g in p l a c e m e n t s t h a t i n v o l v e s o m e 3 0 0 c o m m u n i t y a g e n c i e s a n d to e x p l o r e t h e issues arising f r o m their experiences. S t u d e n t s first o b s e r v e patients in their r e s i d e n c e s in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d better h o w " p e o p l e c o p e w i t h illn e s s a n d disability in the h o m e e n v i r o n m e n t . " T h e y t h e n s p e n d t i m e at a p u b l i c h e a l t h u n i t w h e r e they are e x p o s e d to such issues as " d o m e s t i c v i o l e n c e , s e x u a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d diseases and s m o k i n g c e s s a t i o n . " T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y a section in the c o u r s e on " h e a l t h d e t e r m i n a n t s a n d health promotion strategies," and includes two agency placements which a d d r e s s t h e s e t h e m e s . In their s e c o n d year, students f o c u s o n the "interc o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a health p r o b l e m and a social i s s u e . " C o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n c o m m u n i t y a g e n c i e s and t e a c h i n g hospitals e n a b l e students to g r a p p l e directly w i t h the m e d i c a l a n d social e l e m e n t s o f the issues t h e y are investigating. T h r o u g h o u t the t w o - y e a r course, s t u d e n t s are e x p o s e d to a variety of r e a d i n g s f r o m social science fields. T h e p r o g r a m has b e e n a s s e s s e d positively b y students, patients a n d a g e n c i e s . S t u d e n t s especially a p p r e c i a t e the field p l a c e m e n t s , t h o u g h as W a s y l e n k i et al ( 1 9 9 7 ) . n o t e , " t h e c o u r s e is w e a k e r o n the t h e o r e t i c a l side, b e c a u s e an i n t e g r a t i n g c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l has n o t yet b e e n d e v e l o p e d " (pp. 3 8 2 - 3 8 3 ) . I m p r o v i n g the c o u r s e thus requires a m o r e e f f e c tive m e l d i n g of the a c a d e m i c and hands-on empirical practical a p p r o a c h e s . E v e n in its e a r l y p h a s e , t h e c o u r s e h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e of a training p r o g r a m that c o m b i n e s social a n d m e d i c a l The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 60 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin s c i e n c e , a n d t h e v i r t u e of g r a p p l i n g w i t h health p r o b l e m s w i t h i n a social c o n t e x t . W h e t h e r it will actually p r o d u c e p h y s i c i a n s w h o e m p l o y m o r e holistic, c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d f o r m s of m e d i c a l p r a c t i c e r e m a i n s to b e seen. A c c o r d i n g to research c o n d u c t e d by the Consultative G r o u p on R e s e a r c h a n d E d u c a t i o n in L a w c o n c l u d e d , C a n a d i a n l a w s c h o o l s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g their a p p l i e d e d u c a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s , p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s t o b e o f f e r i n g l e g a l e d u c a t i o n t h a t is b o t h h u m a n e a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l r a t h e r t h a n n a r r o w l y v o c a t i o n a l . Ideally, the e m p h a s i s is o n cultivating in s t u d e n t s a p r o f o u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the l a w as a social p h e n o m e n o n a n d a n intellectual enterprise. L a w schools generally i d e n t i f y t h r e e elem e n t s as characteristic of this type o f legal e d u c a t i o n : • • l e a r n i n g legal rules ( w h a t w e will call " d o c t r i n e , " r e c o g n i z i n g t h e s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t c o m m o n law a n d civil l a w c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e t e r m ) and d e v e l o p i n g t h e ability to u s e the rules; l e a r n i n g l e g a l s k i l l s ( s u c h as i n t e r v i e w i n g , a d v o c a c y a n d negotiation); • d e v e l o p i n g a h u m a n e p e r s p e c t i v e on law, and a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l a w as a s o c i a l p h e n o m e n o n a n d an intellectual d i s c i p l i n e ( C o n s u l t a t i v e G r o u p on R e s e a r c h , 1983, p. 55). To u n d e r l i n e the i m p o r t a n c e of the links b e t w e e n liberal e d u c a t i o n a n d legal p r a c t i c e , a n u m b e r o f universities do o f f e r legal studies w i t h i n t h e i r a r t s f a c u l t i e s . C a r l e t o n U n i v e r s i t y is t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e s e t h o u g h s i m i l a r p r o g r a m s also exist at Waterloo, R e g i n a , York, B r o c k , a n d elsew h e r e ( C o n s u l t a t i v e G r o u p on R e s e a r c h , 1983). N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e s e initiatives, the n e w political e c o n o m y that n o w threatens liberal e d u c a t i o n h a s a f f e c t e d l a w students. A r t h u r s ( 1 9 9 8 ) c o n t e n d s that: t h e y a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p a t i e n t , as a g r o u p , w i t h " h u m a n e p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , " the e t h o s of C a n a d i a n law schools since the 1960s, a n d t h e y i n c r e a s i n g l y a v o i d " p u r e l y a c a d e m i c " o f f e r ings. A n d this brings t h e m into direct conflict with their already beleaguered professors, who confront heavier work loads, more rigorous performance measures, declining f i n a n c i a l p r o s p e c t s — a n d now, its s e e m s likely, intellectual f r u s t r a t i o n , (p. 31) The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 61 T h u s , Tagg ( 1 9 9 8 ) speaks of the need to m o v e f r o m a c o n v e n t i o n a l instruction to a learning paradigm: Changing the governing paradigm, becoming learning-driven institutions, m a y seem a daunting task for today's knowledge f a c t o r i e s . It s e e m s a little like a s k i n g the p o s t o f f i c e to become a church. Yet the reason that the ideal of liberal education survives in our cultural imagination is that it addresses an ongoing need, the need to nurture in the young the development of both heart and mind, the need to set young people on a course that offers not just facility but maturity, not just cleverness but wisdom, (p. 292) Similarly, Michael Higgins, the President of St. Jerome's College at the University of Waterloo, contends that the classical aims of liberal education have relevance, perhaps more than ever, in contemporary society: The pressure [today] is on the cultivation of those skills that are m a r k e t a b l e . You d o n ' t w a n t s o m e b o d y c o m i n g out [of university] with a degree in Aristotelian metaphysics. But in an important way, the people w h o are the metaphysicians or the epistemologists or the specialists in old English, are... p r e c i s e l y the ones w e w a n t to be e d u c a t e d f o r the f u t u r e . T h e y ' r e t h e o n e s w e w a n t to b e able to m a k e d i s c e r n i n g j u d g e m e n t s , to understand the past, to be discriminating, to understand the implications of things that are not visible and palpable and tangible and immediate, things that are not driven by the kind of ephemeral mystique we associate with the media, but w h o are, in important ways, able to dissect and to analyze. In m a n y ways, the traditional humanities, philosophy, English, literature studies did precisely that. (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1999, p. 158) LIBERAL EDUCATION AND THE COMMUNITY As well as cultivating "general habits of mind which will pay off in good performance when applied to any constructive endeavor" (Anderson, 1993), liberal education, according to Bond (1982), can effectively serve The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 62 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin the d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s e s if students obtain a critical understanding of h o w society gathers, p r o c e s s e s a n d c o m m u n i c a t e s information: W h e n a n e w S e c r e t a r y of State m a k e s a p o l i c y s t a t e m e n t o n h u m a n rights, " T h e r e will b e n o d e - e m p h a s i s b u t a c h a n g e in p r i o r i t y , " w e c a n see p a s t t h e v i g o r a n d s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e a n d k n o w that h e is t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e , that h e k n o w s h e is t a l k i n g n o n s e n s e , a n d that h e a s s u m e s that w e will n o t k n o w t h e d i f f e r e n c e . T h e s e are i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s f o r u s to k n o w . (p. 140) U s i n g b o t h a c a d e m i c a n d " e x p e r i e n t i a l " m o d e s of teaching, universities s h o u l d — b e t t e r t h a n t h e y d o n o w — c o n t r i b u t e to e n l i g h t e n e d citizenship, c o m m u n i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n , and, in the p r o c e s s h e l p an " i n f o r m a t i o n s o c i e t y " b e c o m e a m o r e " i n f o r m e d s o c i e t y " (van der Zee, 1996). N o r s h o u l d o n e o v e r l o o k the d e m o n s t r a b l e and critical s u p p o r t that the fine arts a n d liberal e d u c a t i o n m a k e to a c o m m u n i t y ' s culture. In t h e mass-market leisure industries, characterized by entertainment theme p a r k s a n d e n o r m o u s c o m m o d i t y c o n s u m p t i o n (Warpole, 1996), the u n i v e r s i t y p r o v i d e s a rare institutional f o r u m for artistic creativity a n d selfe x p r e s s i o n w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y find outlets in the c o m m u n i t y . A s w e n o t e in the n e x t section, an a n a l y s i s of C a n a d i a n c e n s u s statistics s h o w s that fine arts g r a d u a t e s e a r n less t h a n m o s t other university g r a d u a t e s , and for s o m e , this is e v i d e n c e of the p o o r e c o n o m i c r e t u r n s p r o d u c e d b y t h e arts. In f a c t , t h e p r e c i s e o p p o s i t e is t h e case. W h i l e e m p l o y m e n t in artistic fields tends to be contract-based, and/or short-term — w h i c h likely a c c o u n t s f o r the f i e l d ' s i n c o m e levels — the overall e c o n o m i c contribution o f arts a n d cultural activities is c o n s i d e r a b l e . In 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 , t h e s e sectors e m p l o y e d 6 6 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e ' d i r e c t l y a n d indirectly,' a n d c o n t r i b u t e d $23.8 billion to C a n a d a ' s gross domestic product (Turbide, 1995). H i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l institutions t h u s h e l p k e e p v i b r a n t a c o m m u n i t y o f w r i t e r s , p e r f o r m e r s a n d p r o d u c e r s that enrich the c o u n t r y ' s cultural a n d artistic life, as w e l l as its tourist industry. Liberal education also potentially offers perspective on contempor a r y p r o b l e m s in an era o f r a p i d c h a n g e , r i v e n w i t h uncertainty. J a n s e n a n d v a n d e r V e e n ( 1 9 9 6 ) c o n t e n d that in the f a c e of a t e c h n o l o g y - d r i v e n , e c o l o g i c a l l y d i s t u r b e d , a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d w o r l d , m a j o r social, p o l i t i c a l a n d e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s f a c e e v e r y society, a n d t h e i s s u e of t h e The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 63 quality of leadership is especially pressing. " W h o should rule us, w h o should m a n a g e us, h o w should we control them, are questions that have to be posed again and now on a much broader, global scale," (p. 125) and universities have a critical role to play in addressing such problems. Individuals, they argue, would benefit most f r o m a f o r m of schooling that eschews exclusively instrumentalist teaching on the one hand or instruction of u n g r o u n d e d abstract c o n c e p t s on the other. E d u c a t i o n instead should "(re)integrate the teaching and learning of practical skills and knowledge that people need for daily living with the stimulation of questions and public debate about the future of society and the possible designs of individual and social life" (p. 129). Of course, the mere provision of liberal arts courses is no guarantee that the intellectual and social goals outlined above will be achieved, nor would w e argue that all students profit from their exposure to the liberal arts. There are, after all, " D " students and other malingerers in all disciplines. Furthermore, arts courses that are delivered exclusively in extraordinarily large lectures by professors who fail to engage the attention, let alone the interest, of their students are unlikely to provide much pedagogical value. Courses whose assignments are based exclusively on multiple choice instead of research and writing requirements are more likely to serve the cause of rote learning than scholarly study. In other words, where the liberal arts are themselves taught in a mundane manner, stressing the consumption and uncritical reiteration of routine data, they probably contribute little to the cultivation of the student's intellect. Liberal arts courses and content are a necessary but not a sufficient basis for realizing the goals of liberal education. As Charles Anderson (1993) argues, universities need to attend critically and thoroughly to the means by which the ideals of liberal education can be achieved. THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF LIBERAL EDUCATION: LABOUR MARKET OUTCOMES, 1986 TO 1996 We h a v e attempted, thus far, to argue for the intellectual, social and cultural importance of liberal education. We recognize, however, that aspiring graduates are concerned, perhaps even preoccupied, with the The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 64 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d i n c o m e r e w a r d s of their u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n s , a n d this section addresses this issue b y d r a w i n g on micro-data files f r o m the C a n a d i a n Census, 1 9 8 6 - 1 9 9 6 . The data analysis explores the link b e t w e e n g r a d u a t e s ' fields o f s t u d y a n d their l a b o u r m a r k e t o u t c o m e s . T h e f o c u s o f c o m p a r i s o n is b e t w e e n u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s w h o s t u d i e d fine arts, h u m a n i t i e s , a n d social s c i e n c e s a n d t h o s e g r a d u a t e s w h o c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r studies in fields s u c h as e d u c a t i o n , c o m m e r c e , e n g i n e e r ing, n u r s i n g a n d o t h e r h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n s a n d m a t h / p h y s i c a l sciences. 1 T a b l e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t e n r o l m e n t s in a l m o s t all f i e l d s o f s t u d y 2 b e t w e e n 1986 a n d 1996 r e m a i n e d relatively stable, a n d there are current indications that t h e d e m a n d f o r liberal e d u c a t i o n r e m a i n s strong. 3 In 1986 ( n a t i o n - w i d e ) , 1 3 . 7 % o f all u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s c l a i m e d h u m a n i t i e s as their field of study; this d e c r e a s e d to 11.5% in 1996. In 1986, 17.3% o f u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s indicated the social sciences as their p r i m a r y field of study a n d , b y 1996, the p r o p o r t i o n in the social sciences h a d increased to 1 8 . 1 % . T h e p r o p o r t i o n s s t u d y i n g in a g r i c u l t u r e a n d b i o l o g y d e c r e a s e d s l i g h t l y o v e r a d e c a d e w h i l e t h o s e c o n c e n t r a t i n g t h e i r studies in c o m m e r c e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g steadily increased. O t h e r fields (e.g. m a t h / p h y s i cal s c i e n c e s ) s h o w e d f l u c t u a t i o n s f r o m 1986—1996. Table 4 also reveals g e n d e r s e g r e g a t i o n b y field o f study. W o m e n still d o m i n a t e d in n u r s i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n , a n d c o m p r i s e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s in fine arts, h u m a n i t i e s , a n d the social sciences. In contrast, m e n w e r e d o m i n a n t in e n g i n e e r i n g , m a t h a n d p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a n d c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m a j o r i t y o f g r a d u a t e s in c o m m e r c e . Table 2 p r o v i d e s u n e m p l o y m e n t rate information across fields of s t u d y f o r t h e m o s t c u r r e n t c e n s u s ( 1 9 9 6 ) a n d illustrates that u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s in b o t h a g e c o h o r t s e x p e r i e n c e d the l o w e s t u n e m p l o y m e n t in c o m p a r i s o n to h i g h s c h o o l n o n - c o m p l e t e r s , g r a d u a t e s and p o s t s e c o n d a r y c e r t i f i c a t e / d i p l o m a h o l d e r s . A m o n g u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s in 2 5 - 2 9 a g e c o h o r t , t h o s e in h u m a n i t i e s h a d the h i g h e s t u n e m p l o y m e n t rate ( 9 . 4 % ) , w h i l e t h o s e in n u r s i n g h a d t h e l o w e s t r a t e ( 4 . 4 % ) . S o c i a l s c i e n c e s (7.9%), engineering (7.4%), and math/physical sciences (7.9%) graduates d i s p l a y e d similar u n e m p l o y m e n t rates. In contrast, fine arts g r a d u ates h a d a slightly l o w e r rate ( 6 . 5 % ) t h a n the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d n o n - l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n g r a d u a t e s . T h o u g h t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a h o s t of e c o n o m i c The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring JU 13 a 0) in so CN in ro as Os —; ro ro OS o CO as Tf so CN 00 SO Value of Liberal OS in Tf Tf so as CN ro so CN — r-; CN Os OS in O O 00 o Tf CN in Os —• — 13 a u tu t 1 sq OO r o CN — in in CN ro Os — CN O CN o H JD 13 < u tU as CN Tf O — t ^ — CN CN t-; ro so (N Tf Tf Tf r- SO © Tf as o SO Tf — SO —' — in 00 o Tf O O s•—• o H Os 13 Os Tt CN — CN Os oo in oo CO o ro O in ro Tf so O o oo in CN CN ro ro Tf « ro — CN SO — oo oo Tf CN Os ro O r- SO O SO — so O O S S O O S as as CN oo i n r-; CN sq ro o CN C O oo C O CN — o Tf O Tf SO CO —: r-' ro o Tf CN N oo sq so ro so Tf C so O O S in S O S 1O '— — —-< so u Os * • SO SO CN in oo CO OS ro in OS in ro O Tf SO SO ^ so Tf — sq ^ CN Os in o ro o CN Tf CN - — ro ro so so Tf rr» CN oo 7s cn in r-CN —< CN CN (N r- r-; in oo — CN ro CN in O ci O CN — CN ro Tf CN in in ro O O — Tf — CN O ro m — Os Tf CN sq in ro O Op O Tf r o o t-; o — CN > — ' —O O Os C N so so Tf CN No O O S ro p Tf Tf as C C N oo 00 C N O in C N .—' 1 so Os Tf ro —oi r- o ri "n «i si O o Os 3 a c a a es g < u S c/l < u g >1 cn k, a I Os t~-sor-;roor-^r--OscNro Moint^inviosrivD^ o H •t' 65 CN UH so OS Os CN Education I ëB "o < 0 2 0 3 •2 C c S 3 | « < 1 3 ^ 3 « £ S o •5 .S 3 O O C + O C/3 tj S B. £ — o ° •s ^ a g>.S £ ON "o •g Crt I ^ r5 ^ S 5 o u C " 3 cj zz i 3 l'S, n-13 •fi .<2 C H VI ci -g • JS £ « o S • rS « o S jP The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 as as Table 2 & s a S- Unemployment by Field of Study, 1996 Sex r Total High school non-completers High school graduates Postsecondary certificate/diploma 19.7 11.5 10.0 Women Men 25-29 year olds Total 19.1 10.9 10.4 12.7 7.8 7.4 Women Men 30 year olds and up to I 20.8 12.2 9.7 12.5 7.8 7.4 12.9 7.8 7.3 ^ 2 a. îu s R » N University ET Graduates Education Fine Arts Humanities Social Sciences Commerce Agriculture/Biology Engineering Nursing Other health professions Math/Physical Sciences s" 4.7 6.5 9.4 7.9 5.9 6.9 7.4 4.4 5.7 7.9 4.3 4.3 9.7 6.8 4.8 7.0 8.5 4.3 5.0 8.5 Sources: Census of Canada, 1996, Micordata File 5.6 9.6 8.9 9.5 7.0 6.7 7.1 7.1 6.9 7.5 3.1 6.4 6.0 4.5 3.9 4.8 5.2 3.6 3.1 5.0 3.4 6.6 6.8 5.5 5.0 6.0 10.0 3.7 3.8 5.1 2.5 6.0 5.2 3.5 3.3 3.7 4.6 1.8 2.6 4.9 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 67 a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s that i n f l u e n c e d the u n e m p l o y m e n t rates o f g r a d u a t e s a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s of study, the m e s s a g e c o n v e y e d b y t h e s e f i n d i n g s is that t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r to b e empirical j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e belief that liberal fields o f s t u d y lead g r a d u a t e s to h i g h e r levels of j o b i n s e c u rity t h a n other fields. In e x a m i n i n g the 30 a n d u p age cohort, w e f o u n d t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e g a p s in u n e m p l o y m e n t a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s o f s t u d y actually n a r r o w e d , r a n g i n g f r o m 3 . 1 % for g r a d u a t e s in e d u c a t i o n a n d " o t h e r h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n s , " to 6 . 4 % in fine arts. G r a d u a t e s in the social s c i e n c e s h a d l o w e r u n e m p l o y m e n t rates ( 4 . 5 % ) t h a n e n g i n e e r i n g ( 5 . 2 % ) a n d m a t h / p h y s i c a l sciences ( 5 . 0 % ) graduates. W h i l e w e c a n n o t c o n c l u d e that g r a d u a t e s in liberal e d u c a t i o n fields h a d u n i f o r m l y l o w e r u n e m p l o y m e n t rates t h a n other fields of study, the findings r e p o r t e d in T a b l e 2 do n o t s u p p o r t the a s s u m p t i o n that liberal e d u c a t i o n g r a d u a t e s experienced more negative labour market outcomes than non-liberal education graduates. Table 3 s h o w s that u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s in 1996 w e r e far m o r e succ e s s f u l in e n t e r i n g either p r o f e s s i o n a l or m a n a g e r i a l o c c u p a t i o n s w h e t h e r t h e y c o n c e n t r a t e d t h e i r s t u d i e s in liberal arts or o t h e r fields of study. T h u s , in e x a m i n i n g t h o s e w h o w e r e in t h e 2 5 - 2 9 y e a r o l d c o h o r t in 1996, w e f o u n d that the h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n of n o n - u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s obtaining professional/managerial positions were postsecondary and d i p l o m a g r a d u a t e s ( 2 6 . 2 % ) , w i t h g e n d e r variations b e i n g n e g l i g i b l e for this g r o u p . In contrast, the r a n g e across all fields of study a m o n g u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s in t h e s a m e a g e c o h o r t w a s 4 6 . 9 % ( H u m a n i t i e s ) a n d 88.4% (other health professions). The magnitude of these differences w a s m a i n t a i n e d w h e n w e i n s p e c t e d the 30 year and u p category. A m o n g liberal e d u c a t i o n g r a d u a t e s in the 2 5 - 2 9 age cohort, there w a s s o m e variation in the p r o p o r t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l / m a n a g e r i a l r a n g i n g f r o m 4 6 . 9 % f o r h u m a n i t i e s g r a d u a t e s to 5 6 . 3 % f o r fine arts graduates. G e n d e r variat i o n s w i t h i n t h e s e fields of study w e r e small e x c e p t in the i n s t a n c e of fine arts w h e r e there w a s a 6 . 4 % d i f f e r e n c e in f a v o u r of m e n . G e n e r a l l y speaking, however, occupational outcomes favoured graduates from n o n - l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n f i e l d s f o r t h o s e in t h e 2 5 - 2 9 y e a r o l d c o h o r t , t h o u g h t h e r e w a s a v e r y strong variation r a n g i n g f r o m 5 0 . 4 % for c o m m e r c e g r a d u a t e s to 8 8 . 4 % f o r other health p r o f e s s i o n s . W i t h r e s p e c t to The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 68 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin Table 3 Proportion in Professional/Managerial Occupations by Field of Study, 1996 25-29 year olds Sex Total Women Men High school non-completers High school graduates Postsecondary certificate/diploma 7.3 14.8 26.2 7.0 13.7 26.6 7.4 15.7 25.8 74.0 56.3 46.9 49.0 50.4 58.2 76.1 78.8 88.4 71.1 76.1 53.7 47.3 48.5 47.6 61.0 71.5 79.4 89.0 66.7 68.0 60.1 46.3 49.6 53.1 54.9 77.4 68.8 87.2 73.2 Sex Total Women Men High school non-completers High school graduates Postsecondary certificate/diploma 10.7 19.2 32.7 8.8 14.8 34.0 12.0 24.0 31.6 80.9 71.1 67.7 68.7 63.0 63.0 77.8 83.8 90.0 77.8 79.1 68.3 63.0 65.4 52.3 63.1 67.7 84.0 85.9 70.2 84.4 75.9 72.9 71.8 68.7 63.0 78.9 79.5 93.1 80.5 University Graduates Education Fine Arts Humanities Social Sciences Commerce Agriculture/Biology Engineering Nursing Other health professions Math/Physical Sciences 30 year olds and University up Graduates Education Fine Arts Humanities Social Sciences Commerce Agriculture/Biology Engineering Nursing Other health professions Math/Physical Sciences Source: Census of Canada 1996, Microdata File The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s in t h e 3 0 a n d u p c o h o r t , g r a d u a t e s in all 69 fields a p p e a r to h a v e i m p r o v e d their e m p l o y m e n t p r o s p e c t s a n d i n c r e a s e d their r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in p r o f e s s i o n a l / m a n a g e r i a l o c c u p a t i o n s . T h i s i m p r o v e m e n t a p p e a r e d e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g f o r t h o s e in liberal e d u c a t i o n fields. T h u s , fine arts g r a d u a t e s i n c r e a s e d t h e i r p r o f i l e b y 1 4 . 8 % to 7 1 . 1 % ; h u m a n i t i e s g r a d u a t e s e n h a n c e d their r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b y 2 0 . 8 % , to 6 7 . 7 % a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e g r a d u a t e s s h o w e d s i m i l a r g a i n s in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g f r o m 4 9 . 0 % to 6 8 . 7 % . W h e n w e t u r n e d to an analysis o f i n c o m e b y field of s t u d y in 1996, we found a strong correspondence between income and occupational a t t a i n m e n t findings. T h u s , the e m p l o y m e n t i n c o m e s o f h i g h s c h o o l n o n completers ($11,302), high school graduates ($15,827) and posts e c o n d a r y c e r t i f i c a t e / d i p l o m a holders ($18,652), a g e d 2 5 - 2 9 , w e r e g e n erally a n d c o n s i s t e n t l y l o w e r than f o r all university g r a d u a t e s w h a t e v e r their field of study, w i t h s o m e n o t a b l e exceptions. H i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s e a r n e d m o r e t h a n fine arts g r a d u a t e s ( $ 1 3 , 0 1 7 ) and p o s t s e c o n d a r y cert i f i c a t e / d i p l o m a graduates earned m o r e than fine arts, h u m a n i t i e s ( $ 1 6 , 4 5 1 ) a n d a g r i c u l t u r e / b i o l o g y g r a d u a t e s ($17,159). It is also i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s in e a r n i n g s w i t h t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s being particularly pronounced a m o n g those obtaining lower levels of education. For example, a m o n g high school non-completers, m e n earned m o r e t h a n d o u b l e ( $ 1 5 , 1 2 4 ) the w a g e s of w o m e n ($6,619); t h e s e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e also quite s i g n i f i c a n t a m o n g h i g h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s a n d postsecondary certificate/diploma graduates. A m o n g university graduates, the o n l y field in w h i c h w o m e n ' s e a r n i n g s e x c e e d e d that of m e n w a s n u r s i n g . T h e p r e v i o u s table also s h o w s that the p r o p o r t i o n o f w o m e n in n u r s i n g c l a s s i f i e d as p r o f e s s i o n a l / m a n a g e r i a l w a s h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f m e n . T h o u g h e a r n i n g s d i f f e r e n c e s in f a v o u r of m e n w e r e i n s i g n i f i c a n t in s o m e fields o f s t u d y (e.g., h u m a n i t i e s , a g r i c u l t u r e / b i o l o g y ) m o s t o t h e r fields, b e t h e y liberal or p r o f e s s i o n a l , s h o w e d e m p l o y m e n t i n c o m e d i f - f e r e n c e s that f a v o u r e d m e n o v e r w o m e n . T h e s e a d v a n t a g e s w e r e significantly s t r o n g e r a m o n g g r a d u a t e s w h o w e r e in the 30 y e a r old a n d u p age c o h o r t . I n d e e d , the salary a d v a n t a g e of w o m e n in n u r s i n g r e v e r s e s for this age group, with m e n earning substantially higher incomes than w o m e n . T h e s e g e n d e r differences are m a n i f e s t e d across all fields of study. The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 70 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin Table 4 Income by Field of Study, 1996 25-29 year olds Sex Total Women Men High school non-completers High school graduates Postsecondary certificate/diploma 11,302 15,827 18,652 6,619 11,862 15,220 15,124 19,689 22,595 20,692 13,017 16,451 19,248 25,165 17,159 25,098 23,621 22,925 24,021 20,446 11,966 16,207 17,745 24,614 17,000 19,422 23,895 23,483 22,399 21,408 14,618 16,799 21,385 25,676 17,355 26,715 19,128 22,027 24,822 Total Women Men 9,345 17,998 22,204 5,277 12,609 16,040 14,013 25,324 28,178 29,954 17,761 25,940 32,981 39,166 27,505 39,674 26,763 31,910 38,314 26,155 15,488 22,025 25,797 29,126 21,020 23,084 26,511 27,118 28,457 37,779 21,898 30,667 39,996 44,747 33,343 41,505 32,264 35,685 42,138 University Graduates Education Fine Arts Humanities Social Sciences Commerce Agriculture/Biology Engineering Nursing Other health professions Math/Physical Sciences 30 year olds and up Sex High school non-completers High school graduates Postsecondary certificate/diploma University Graduates Education Fine Arts Humanities Social Sciences Commerce Agriculture/Biology Engineering Nursing Other health professions Math/Physical Sciences Source: Census of Canada 1996, Microdata File (1995 constant dollar) The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 71 Significantly, h o w e v e r , as t h e y a g e d , w o m e n in the h u m a n i t i e s a n d s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i m p r o v e d their i n c o m e s at a m o r e r a p i d p a c e t h a n did w o m e n in c o m m e r c e a n d engineering. T h o s e over 30 in the h u m a n i t i e s a n d social s c i e n c e s raised their i n c o m e s b y 3 5 . 9 % and 4 5 % r e s p e c t i v e l y c o m p a r e d to 1 8 . 6 % f o r f e m a l e e n g i n e e r s a n d 2 0 . 5 % f o r f e m a l e c o m m e r c e g r a d u a t e s . S i m i l a r p a t t e r n s o c c u r r e d f o r g r a d u a t e s as a w h o l e . G r a d u a t e s o v e r 3 0 f r o m the social sciences i m p r o v e d their i n c o m e s b y 71.3% and those from the humanities by 57.6%. C o m m e r c e graduates saw their i n c o m e s rise by 5 5 . 6 % and engineers by 58%. T h u s while t h o s e in the m a l e - d o m i n a t e d fields, especially c o m m e r c e , the p r o f e s s i o n s a n d t h e s c i e n c e s e a r n e d h i g h e r i n c o m e s t h a n t h o s e in the h u m a n i t i e s and social s c i e n c e s (Table 4), the i n c o m e g a p s b e t w e e n t h e s e fields c l o s e d as g r a d u a t e s got older. T h o s e trained in the liberal arts r e a p e d s i g n i f i c a n t e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s f r o m t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e longer term. O v e r a l l , t h e s e f i n d i n g s d o c u m e n t t h a t l i b e r a l arts g r a d u a t e s h a v e d o n e relatively well in the w o r l d of e m p l o y m e n t . A s L i v i n g s t o n e ( 1 9 9 9 ) a n d A n i s e f et a l . ( 1 9 9 6 ) d e m o n s t r a t e , s o m e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y h a v e f a c e d u n d e r - e m p l o y m e n t in an u n c e r t a i n e c o n o m y , b u t this e x p e r i e n c e h a s n o t b e e n c o n f i n e d to the liberal arts fields. Historically, the o c c u p a t i o n a l f a t e o f e n g i n e e r s a n d other p r o f e s s i o n a l s has fluctuated w i t h m a r k e t c o n d i tions, which are largely unpredictable (Advisory Committee, 1974; B o u c h a r d , 1998; L a b o u r M a r k e t D e v e l o p m e n t , 1981). M a r g i n a l i z i n g libe r a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a in f a v o u r o f m o r e " a p p l i e d " s u b j e c t s will n o t o n l y h a v e e n o r m o u s social, intellectual a n d cultural costs, but s u c h a strategy is u n l i k e l y to g e n e r a t e m o r e e c o n o m i c security f o r individuals or f o r the c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e . CONCLUSION In r e c e n t years, globalization, privatization, deficit-cutting, a n d the supposed needs of a "knowledge-based" market economy have driven g o v e r n m e n t s to r e s h a p e their a p p r o a c h e s to h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . F u n d i n g n o w p r i v i l e g e s the m a r k e t - o r i e n t e d , h i g h - t e c h n o l o g y fields of study, in w h i c h students, too, are s h o w i n g g r o w i n g interest. B u t s u c h policies a n d The Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 72 P. Axelrod, P. Anisef, & Z. Lin c h o i c e s are b a s e d o n the belief that liberal e d u c a t i o n h a s little i n v e s t m e n t v a l u e f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d society. W e h a v e c h a l l e n g e d this a s s u m p t i o n a n d the m i s g u i d e d n e s s o f t h e p o l i c i e s o n w h i c h it is b a s e d . O v e r a l l , liberal arts g r a d u a t e s h a v e succ e e d e d in t h e w o r l d of e m p l o y m e n t , t h o u g h t h e f u t u r e f o r s t u d e n t s in t h e s e a n d o t h e r s fields, as a l w a y s , c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d w i t h certainty. W e c o n t e n d that liberal e d u c a t i o n is the c o r e o f h i g h e r learning — in g o o d e c o n o m i c t i m e s a n d b a d — a n d in its e f f o r t t o p r e p a r e p e o p l e f o r e m p l o y m e n t , the u n i v e r s i t y m u s t not b e p e r m i t t e d to r a z e its o w n intellectual a n d cultural f o u n d a t i o n s . L i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n has a vital p l a c e in arts a n d s c i e n c e c o u r s e s , a n d in i n n o v a t i v e l y d e s i g n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d v o c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s . In a n y e v e n t , the liberal arts are n o t static; t h e y c o n t i n u e to b e r e f o r m e d , b u t less in r e s p o n s e to e p h e m e r a l m a r k e t trends t h a n o n t h e b a s i s o f e v o l v i n g intellectual currents. A s e m p l o y e r s t h e m selves h a v e p e r i o d i c a l l y asserted, b y b r o a d e n i n g the k n o w l e d g e b a s e o f e m p l o y e e s , liberal e d u c a t i o n c a n e n h a n c e t h e abilities o f g r a d u a t e s in a p p l i e d fields a n d e n r i c h society as a w h o l e . A s t h e y d e v e l o p p r o g r a m s a n d a l l o c a t e r e s o u r c e s , p o l i c y m a k e r s w o u l d b e well a d v i s e d to h e e d this a d v i c e . So, too, w o u l d students as they p l a n their a c a d e m i c a n d o c c u p a tional c a r e e r s . 1 ^ Notes 1 Other researchers have recently employed census micro data files to analyse the employability of university graduates in various fields of study and have also examined trends with respect to employment outcomes (see Allen 1998; Guppy & Davies, 1998; Institute for Social Research, 1998; Lin, 1999; Paju, 1997). All of these studies demonstrate the economic value of a university education (individually and socially), including of the liberal arts. Our paper extends the previous analyses by including the most recent (1996) census. It also consistently employs specific age cohorts across the 1971-1996 censuses to provide a picture of life course changes by educational level and type, with respect to different labour market outcomes. Finally, the status of visible minorities from the 1986, 1991 and 1996 censuses is introduced to provide relevant information regarding their participation in different fields of study. The Canadian Journal of Higher Education Volume XXXI, No. 2, 2001 The Enduring Value of Liberal Education 73 ^ Field of study was not measured prior to the 1986 census. ^ According to the Ontario Universities Application Centre (2000), the percentage of university applicants selecting Arts as their first university program choice rose by 6 percent in February 2000 compared to February 1999. By contrast, the percentage of those whose first choice was business, and engineering and science fell from the previous year by 0.6% and 1.7%, respectively. References Advisory Committee on Academic Planning. (1974). Chemical engineering, report no. 11, A-7. In P. Axelrod (1982), Scholars and dollars: Politics, economics, and the universities of Ontario, 1945-1980, (pp. 45-47). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.. Allen, R.C. (1998). The employability of university graduates in the humanities, social sciences and education: Recent statistical evidence. Unpublished paper. Anderson, C.W. 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