Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 1 CSSHE SCÉES Canadian Journal of Higher Education Revue canadienne d’enseignement supérieur Volume 43, No. 1, 2013, pages 1-22 Pedagogical Over Punitive: The Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities Jane Griffith York University Abstract This study is a snapshot of how Ontario universities are currently promoting academic integrity (AI) online. Rather than concentrating on policies, this paper uses a semiotic methodology to consider how the websites of Ontario’s publicly funded universities present AI through language and image. The paper begins by surveying each website and documenting emerging languagebased trends like interpellating different audiences, inducting students into a larger scholarly community, and appealing to peer disapproval. The paper also records how these websites visually communicate AI through images and video, arguing that image and text inform one another in a two-way relationship: for example, a punitive image may undermine an otherwise textually pedagogical website. Overall, the majority of Ontario websites have a decidedly educative mandate in their online AI resources, aligning with current AI scholarship that lauds education rather than after-the-fact punishment. Résumé La présente communication fait le survol des moyens de promotion de l’intégrité académique sur l’internet par les universités de l’Ontario. Au lieu d’étudier les politiques officielles des universités sur le plagiat, l’analyse utilise une méthodologie sémiotique afin d’étudier comment les sites web des universités publiques de l’Ontario représentent l’intégrité académique à CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 2 travers l’image et le langage. L’étude part d’une enquête de chaque site web et documente les modes de langage présentés tels que l’interpellation de divers audiences, l’inclusion des étudiants dans une communauté académique plus large, ainsi que l’influence de la désapprobation des pairs. La communication démontre aussi comment ces sites web représentent visuellement l’intégrité académique à travers des images et des vidéos. Elle démontre que le texte et l’image s’informent l’un et l’autre dans un discours à double sens : une image punitive pourrait aller à l’encontre du contexte textuel pédagogique présenté. Somme toute, la majorité des sites web universitaires de l’Ontario ont un mandat qui favorise la pédagogie dans les questions d’intégrité intellectuelle, s’alignant ainsi avec les positions des chercheurs qui privilégient l’éducation en matière d’intégrité intellectuelle plutôt que la punition après les faits. Introduction “Is plagiarism too painful to discuss? Or too trivial?”—those were the words of R. G. Martin, a Canadian academic writing in 1971. More than 40 years later, contemporary discussions of plagiarism in higher education have turned from the silence Martin revealed to questions of how best to promote academic integrity (AI) on university campuses. Much has been written on the role of education in AI promotion, specifically how a student’s awareness of definitions, penalties, prevention, and gravity can limit the act. For many students, such education comes from a student handbook, a course syllabus, or an instructor. An increasingly more ubiquitous forum for AI education, though, is the web, which may provide students’ primary exposure to discussion of AI. This paper analyzes how AI is taught through Ontario university websites. Many AI websites include links to educational resources and an official university senate policy. As well, they feature online tutorials, quizzes for self-assessment, student scenarios, examples, and information on punishment. But how AI is textually and visually presented varies greatly. This paper augments the scant information available on both Canadian and online AI education, concluding that an AI website’s language and images could contribute considerably to a student’s AI education. Academic Integrity in Canada: Critical Pedagogy, Critical Time Scholarship on academic dishonesty typically calls for education before punishment (Howard, 2001; McCabe, Treviño, & Butterfield, 2001; Taylor, Usick, & Paterson, 2004). Twomey, White, and Sagendorf (2009), for instance, advocated for ways that universities can promote academic integrity rather than punishing after the fact or using methods of detection such as the heavily surveilled testing centre at the University of Central Florida (Gabriel, 2010). Holistic plagiarism prevention often includes a focus on AI policies as well as preparation and education for students (Devlin, 2003). For McCabe (2005), a pedagogical rather than a punitive approach increased the likelihood that faculty would report transgressions. Importantly, AI education advocates do not wish to do away with punishment, but instead they wish to couple appropriate, clear, and widely known consequences with pre-emptive education and prevention. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 3 AI education itself is most effective when it is clearly worded and accessible. Focusing on the AI statements in course outlines, Brown and Howell (2001) concluded that how a course outline is worded matters greatly. They found that a short and friendly definition was not as effective as an educational description of plagiarism and techniques on how to avoid it. However, Dianda and Neufeld (2007) suggested that universities employ “userfriendly guides” in AI education to “minimize the numbing effects of legally precise policy language” (p. 13). Besides linguistic accessibility, a university’s AI information must be accessible (physically and/or digitally) and circulated to all faculty and students (Christensen Hughes and McCabe, 2006a; Park, 2004; Whitley & Keith-Spiegel, 2001), though Christensen Hughes and McCabe (2006b) found that posting AI information in a university calendar was the most common approach. Though much academic integrity research conducted outside of Canada may well apply to Canadian institutions, Christensen Hughes and McCabe (2006b) stated that more Canadian studies were required to reveal the similarities or differences in the Canadian context. Bertram Gallant and Drinan (2008) concurred, explaining that because much of AI research was American, little was known about the Canadian context. Jurdi, Hage, and Chow (2011) recently contributed to this scant data, finding that over half of the students in their survey of a western Canadian university had committed at least one act of academic dishonesty. Research on AI in Ontario includes Dianda and Neufeld’s (2007) report for the Council of Ontario Universities (COU), which outlined and compared how Ontario universities defined and penalized academic dishonesty. The report described techniques of plagiarism prevention and found a general consistency in how institutions define plagiarism. Their report recommended many changes for Ontario universities, including more consistency on “accidental plagiarism,” transcript notation, and penalties (p. 14). Finally, they recommended that because of changing attitudes toward and emerging concepts of intellectual property, authenticity, and collaboration arising from internet use, faculty must directly address these attitudes and set a strong example in their own practice (p. 14). The Alma Mater Society of Queen’s University (2008) filed a response to the COU report, disagreeing with some points but agreeing with the focus on education and clearly written guides. Guertin (2005) wrote specifically about the web as a vehicle for AI instruction through online lectures. She concluded that online lectures should be preferred over face-to-face instruction because students may reference the lectures throughout the semester. Written in 2005, her article was limited to the technology of the time — that is, PowerPoints and videos that featured the instructor speaking about AI and that could be uploaded to a course management site or distributed on a CD on library reserve. With compressed images, streaming video, faster internet speed, and larger bandwidth, the web now offers the most accessible distribution for AI tutorials, but Guertin’s initial reason for creating such tutorials—student access—remains. Dee and Jacob (2010) found that students who were required to complete an online AI tutorial through the course management website Blackboard significantly decreased plagiarism through education, determining that the tutorial taught students about academic integrity rather than simply increased their perception that they would be caught. Simply put, the internet has provided opportunities to teach AI in different and more accessible ways than a piece of paper. The AI websites discussed in this article certainly CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 4 included information (text) that could be part of an academic calendar, but most websites also took advantage of the dynamic medium of the internet, offering students diagnostic quizzes, interactive tutorials, PowerPoint presentations, Flash tutorials, videos of students and faculty, images, and hyperlinks to other academic integrity websites, Word documents, and PDFs. Even if websites were composed simply of text, they included more than would be feasible (or environmentally friendly) in a course outline or academic calendar. AI websites permitted students to select how much or little information they need (a double-edged flexibility, to be sure). AI websites also allowed a university to cater AI education to different audiences. Given these options, what did the AI web presence of Ontario universities look like, and how did it compare with current AI education scholarship? Methods Because the Ontario AI websites surveyed for this research included both text and image, a semiotic approach offered a rich lens through which to view them. Though seemingly a methodology for understanding linguistic systems of signs, semiotics is often used to elucidate the chains of signifiers that also comprise images. In Image, Music, Text (1977), Barthes isolated that which an image denotes from what it connotes, a concept that was particularly critical when analyzing what AI images literally and figuratively conveyed. Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) departed from Barthes, who claimed that image was dependent on text; they instead argued that images can also signify independently. Both trajectories were present in this study. I identified how image and text inform one another on AI websites, but I also pointed out instances where an image stood in isolation from its accompanying text: image informed text, and text informed image. Rose in Visual Methodologies (2007) also described semiotics as a methodology for studying visual data. As an added layer, this study acknowledged that text and image were online and therefore mediated through technology. Burn and Parker’s Analysing Media Texts (2003) strongly suggested using semiotics as a methodology for analyzing media and specifically websites, cautioning that text and image were similar as well as different. They discussed multimodality theory, a form of mediated sign-making (p. 4). This paper surveyed all 22 publicly funded universities in Ontario, as listed by the Ministry of Training, Colleges, and Universities, from 2010 to 2012. I examined universities rather than all Ontario higher education institutions because many colleges currently house their online AI content under the auspices of their libraries. Ontario universities invited a stronger comparison because they almost uniformly had stand-alone webpages or even websites (see Table 1) dedicated to AI, perhaps signalling greater resources and larger student populations than colleges. The AI web presence of all Ontario universities was located by mimicking what students would likely do: a search via Google using the name of an institution plus the search terms academic honesty, academic integrity, academic dishonesty, or plagiarism (see list of references for specific URLs). Head and Eisenberg (2011) explained in their study that for many students, “search engines such as Google were the go-to source for everyday life information” (Discussion section, para. 4). Although AI education is not “everyday life information,” the reasons a student accessed AI education may be decidedly outside of course requirements. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith Table 1 Ontario Universities and their Academic Integrity Web Presence University AI Web Presence Visual Content Algoma University PDF policies in student calendar No Brock University AI website Carleton University Webpages within “Student Affairs” website Flash tutorial Slogan image Quiz Dominican University College None No Lakehead University Webpages within “Vice President (Academic) and Provost” website Webpage housed under “Vice-President, Academic and Provost” AI website No Laurentian University McMaster University Nipissing University Ontario College of Art and Design Queen’s University Webpages part of the “Office of Instruction and Learning” website Webpages part of the “Students” section of the university’s website AI website Photograph Photograph slide show Quiz Videos of academic integrity officer and faculty speaking about academic integrity Image of Nipissing University’s coat of arms (includes the word integritas) No Photographic banner Royal Military College of Canada HTML policies in the academic calendar No Ryerson University AI website Trent University Webpages part of “Associate Dean of Arts and Science” website and the Academic Skills Centre Cartoon banner Cartoon images with quotations Scenario-based cartoon “episodes” (videos) Quizzes Photographic banner of instructor at chalk board WebCT learning module CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 5 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith University AI Web Presence University of Guelph AI website University of Ontario Institute of Technology AI website University of Ottawa AI website University of Toronto AI website University of Waterloo AI website University of Western Ontario Webpages within the “Teaching Support Centre” website AI website University of Windsor Wilfrid Laurier University AI website York University AI website 6 Visual Content Tutorial Quizzes Video Flash module Newspaper-themed “learning object” Slogan image Videos of students and faculty describing academic integrity (Photographic banners) Photographic banner Quiz Image on the cover of the “Student Rights and Responsibilities Series” PDF Comic strips of student scenarios Slogan image Tutorial with student and celebrity photographs WebCT tutorial Comic “Poster campaign,” 2005-present PowerPoint Presentations (photographic banner, slogan slide show) Photographic banner PowerPoint Presentations (student testimonial) Tutorial Many forms of AI web presence appeared with such Google searches, including senate policies, academic calendar descriptions, library tutorials, and specific AI instruction from a department or a professor’s homepage or online course syllabus. Although these are important forms of AI education, this study focused exclusively on the AI web presence that was created for the larger university community and was presented separately from the actual policies or the library. Dianda and Neufeld’s COU report thoroughly examined Ontario university AI policies; this study instead focused on the presentation of such policies through the medium of the website rather than on comparing how each university defined, prevented, and punished academic dishonesty. I began by listing the elements of each university’s AI web presence: PDFs, webpages, or websites (see Table 1). I then described the image-based content each university included (see Table 1). I also documented the audiences addressed explicitly by each university’s web presence (see Table 2), which ranged from unspecified to diversified audiences (e.g., undergraduate students, department chairs, faculty, and exam invigilators). CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 7 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith Table 2 Faculty/Instructors Family/Parents Graduate Assistants Graduate Students International Students Staff Students (in general) Teaching Assistants Undergraduate Students York r Windso Western o Waterlo Toronto Ottawa UOIT Trent Ryerson Queen’s Ottawa McMas ter Laurier Carleto School Audience Chairs Exam Invigilators Brock n Ontario University AI Websites and Overt, Differentiated Audiences * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * The following questions helped to guide the analysis of online AI text and image: • Is the language or image of the website pedagogical? Punitive? • How is the reader addressed, interpellated, or implicated in the text? In image? • How does a webpage’s text hail a student as part of a larger scholarly community? • Does the webpage indicate fellow students’ disapproval of academic dishonesty? • What images do academic integrity websites use to visually communicate their policies? Although some studies have analyzed university homepages (Gordon & Berhow, 2009; Yoo & Jin, 2004), they focused on usability testing and the dialogic characteristics of the sites. These considerations are important and are addressed briefly in this paper’s conclusion; however, this study more closely focused on how language and image contributed to AI education for students. Results Interpellating the Subject, Inducting the Student Many Ontario university AI websites followed Dianda and Neufeld’s suggestion of academic conduct polices that are “user-friendly guides” with reader-centred language. With such language, students are being hailed as students, to use Louis Althusser’s term. Althusser spoke of how the interpellation of subjects by an ideology comes through the form of being hailed, feeling the hail is intended for you, and then answering the hail. Ryerson’s AI homepage, for example, used the second person to welcome the student reader: CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 8 Whether you are concerned with avoiding the pitfalls which might lead to unintentional academic misconduct, want to understand what academic misconduct is, or are just looking for a comprehensive guide to learning at Ryerson—you’ve come to the right place. This homepage spoke directly to students by using you rather than the third person. Further, the three reasons this passage listed for visiting the website assumed that the student had not yet committed academic misconduct and was instead interested in preventing misconduct or in becoming a stronger student. The contraction you’ve also placed this statement decidedly outside of formal jargon. This theme continued on the Ryerson page that is directly addressed to students. (The website had separate pages for graduate students, faculty, teaching and graduate assistants, and family.) This page reassured readers and empathized with them, acknowledging that plagiarism “can be confusing” and telling the student “Don’t worry.” But the student is not exonerated and is told in several places that it is still the “responsibility as a student to know what is expected.” All the while, though, the student is told directly that he or she “can learn [my emphasis] about all this, and more, by watching the tutorials and searching for more information.” In other words, plagiarism was preventable through education and was in the hands of the student. McMaster University’s AI website, like Ryerson’s, adopted a student-centred tone. The university’s webpage specifically devoted to plagiarism for students (rather than AI generally) has a bulleted list headed “What Does This Mean?” This heading anticipated a question a student reader may have. Within the list, McMaster used the second person. When the text veered away from second person (“many students get confused”), it still appeared empathetic. Through the second person, specific tips, and the presumption that plagiarism may be accidental, McMaster’s website avoided the alienating legalese of which Dianda and Neufeld warned. Additionally, York University employed reader-centred language in its web-based presentation of AI. On its plagiarism webpage for undergraduate students (York also had pages for graduate students, teaching assistants, and faculty), York introduced AI: Student life is complex. Not only must students get used to a complex academic environment where they are largely responsible for their own learning, many disciplines and professors have different requirements about how assignments should be researched, prepared and referenced. Students often feel they have not been adequately prepared to negotiate these conflicting demands. York’s statement did not use second person, but it did empathize with students’ confusion and temptation. Such direct acknowledgement of the student’s subject position could be enough to encourage the student to continue reading. Specific Audiences Many universities devoted webpages to specific audiences (see Table 2) such as undergraduate students, graduate students, faculty, and even department chairs—users whose reasons for visiting an institution’s AI website vary considerably. A graduate student may read strategies for promoting AI as a teaching assistant, an undergraduate student may access plagiarism prevention tutorials, and a department chair may be interested in CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 9 learning about how to support faculty. Some websites included a special section for the parents or family of students to learn more about AI, perhaps an unusual element given the emphasis in these websites on individual student responsibility. Other academic integrity websites left the audience undifferentiated and more general. The University of Toronto, for instance, provided different online AI resources for faculty, students, and teaching assistants. Similarly, McMaster’s AI website included separate pages for students, graduate students, and instructors, as well as specific faculties and their needs. For instance, a paragraph for music students acknowledged that “imitation of style is an integral part of the student’s work” and gave examples a music student may encounter, such as being “required to model an interpretation of a piece around that of a particular performer.” The website provided examples, though, that drew a line: “Clearly, the imitation of style ceases to be legitimate when the student begins to draw upon actual notes or sounds attributable to another person.” Specific scenarios were also given for studio art and computer software. Such descriptions not only interpellated subjects by their general relationship to the university (student, instructor), but also went further by directly addressing specific disciplines whose AI needs were admittedly wide-ranging. Besides reader-centred language and differentiated audiences, many Ontario universities’ AI websites reflected their own institution, exemplifying what Park (2004) referred to as “compatibility with the academic culture of the institution” (p. 298), an alignment that was critical to how likely AI policies were to be adopted. The AI webpage of the Ontario College of Art and Design (OCAD), for instance, reflected its raison d’être as an art school. The webpage acknowledged in its preamble that “OCAD encourages its students to push the boundaries of their creativity.” Before the policy delved into sentences that resembled much of the other policy statements, OCAD explained that its “intention is to support a culture of integrity, not constrain desirable collaborative behaviour.” Such a caveat anticipates a student body of artists. The University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT) also reflected its institutional values in its AI websites. (UOIT included a general AI website and a student-specific AI website.) Both sites provided links to the Canadian Nurses Association Code of Ethics, the Ontario Engineers Code of Ethics, and the Ontario College of Teachers Ethical and Practice Standards. Linking these resources reflected UOIT’s nursing, engineering, and teaching programs. As well, the links connect the ethics (and perhaps repercussions) of academic misconduct to professional misconduct. The Student and the Larger Academic Community Another trend in Ontario university AI websites included inducting students into a larger community. Bok (1990) explained that one way to promote AI was to encourage in students “a stronger sense of communal and civic responsibility” (p. 62). McCabe and Treviño (1993) also described how “there is a renewed interest in the concept of ‘community’ as an effective foundation for campus governance” (p. 522). McCabe, Treviño, and Butterfield (1999) explored how the success of campus honour codes attested to the presence of “a moral community on campus, a community in which students are encouraged to know and abide by the rules” (p. 222). McCabe, Treviño, and Butterfield (2001) advised institutions to “consider ways of creating an ‘ethical community’ on their campuses—one that includes clear communication of rules and standards [and] moral socialization of community members” (p. 228). Anderman and Murdock (2007) further posited that feel- CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 10 ings of attachment and belonging can help thwart misconduct. If students felt they were part of an academic community, they were more likely to abide by the community’s rules, particularly with regards to academic integrity. McMaster began its academic policy statement by explaining that a university “requires the integrity of all members of the University community.” Should any student not consider himself or herself hailed (in Althusser’s meaning of the word) with this opening point, the statement continued: “As a student at McMaster University, you are expected to practice intellectual honesty and to fully acknowledge the work of others.” McMaster made it clear that the university was a community and the student reading the policy was a scholarly member. The AI website of Queen’s University explained that AI must involve the “nurturing and sustaining of an academic community in which all members of the community will thrive” and who all have “ethical responsibilities for supporting and upholding the fundamental values of academic integrity.”1 Trent also appealed to community in its AI webpages, pointing out that “all members of the University community share the responsibility for the academic standards and reputation of the University” and that “academic honesty . . . is a condition of continued membership in the University community.” Similarly, Carleton’s AI webpage for faculty explained that “academic integrity is a community issue” and part of a faculty member’s job was “teaching students how to be good scholars” and “promot[ing] a culture of academic integrity.” Lakehead University’s webpages, which are implicitly addressed to faculty, stated that a faculty member’s role is to “actively initiate students as junior scholars into community of scholars” and to “educate students about the research culture” of a faculty member’s discipline. Ontario university websites attempted to induct students into the community of scholars by invoking peer condemnation of academic dishonesty. McCabe, Treviño, and Butterfield (1999) have conducted several studies that understood “peer pressure as a deterrent” (p. 223). Michaels and Miethe (1989) also found that self-reported cheating correlated to the number of friends who cheated. Though scholars have cited other contextual factors influencing AI (e.g., interest in the course, instructor vigilance, and fair exams [Genereux & McLeod, 1995]), what peers think of AI influenced a student’s likelihood to cheat. Several Ontario universities have capitalized on these findings in their AI websites. Carleton’s AI webpages stated that academic dishonesty was “unfair and discouraging to those students who pursue their studies honestly,” whereas McMaster’s almost verbatim AI website stated that academic dishonesty was “unfair to students who pursue their studies honestly.” York’s AI website went further, adding that AI also meant to “discourage others from violating standards of academic integrity.” In addition, the University of Guelph’s AI website stated that academic misconduct was “detrimental to the university’s learning environment,” which “every member of the University of Guelph community is responsible for maintaining.” The University of Windsor’s AI website went so far as to feature “Students’ True Stories”—testimonials written by students detailing how they were academically dishonest, how they were caught, and what the repercussions have been. Several of the AI websites surveyed incorporated current research on the relationship between cheating and peer disapproval and community. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 11 The Image of Academic Integrity Image-based AI inclusions are an emerging component of a university’s AI web presence as institutions increasingly include photographs, cartoons, video, Flash tutorials, quizzes, PowerPoint presentations, and other forms of AI education beyond what could be circulated on a piece of paper. Such inclusions could be guided by research suggesting that the generation of students who now largely populate classrooms are intuitive visual communicators with a supposed innate ability to read image (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005, 2.5; see also Howe & Strauss, 2000; Palfrey & Gasser, 2008; Prensky, 2000; Tapscott, 1997). Claims of a visual and digitally adept generation, however, have been countered (Bayne & Ross, 2007; Bennett & Maton, 2010; Brown & Czerniewicz, 2010), but AI images may be a response to this assumption. Alternatively, institutions may be including images into their AI websites simply because they were technically able to do so and because it was often expected that a website should present more than was possible on a piece of paper. Most profoundly, image-based components of AI websites can address different learning styles, audiences, and modalities. The paucity of research on image in AI education could relate to the nascent inclusion of image: only some surveyed universities employed techniques that could not be accomplished on paper (see Table 1). Although the image-based components of digital plagiarism policies may not have displaced the text, they certainly have contributed to a student’s understanding of AI and must be theorized just as textual policies have been. Theorists of the visual/verbal binary included Murray (2009), who highlighted philosophers who “de-emphasize the exclusivity of verbal logic as the only form of legitimate articulation” (p. 75). Howells (2003) explained that though both verbal and visual are equally important, “it is to the visual that we need to pay remedial attention” (p. 5), which can come in the form of visual culture studies, defined by Dikovitskaya (2005) as a “research area and a curricular initiative that regards the visual image as the focal point in the processes through which meaning is made in a cultural context” (p. 1). Images, like the text they accompany, communicate meaning to the user of AI websites. Such meaning may inform the text or be informed by the text—the relationship works both ways. Rather than ancillary, images complement as well as contradict the message delivered textually. Paying attention to such images therefore augurs a more complete and complex investigation of how universities were teaching academic integrity. Punitive Images Two of the surveyed universities’ AI websites put forth a punitive stance through their images, contradicting the otherwise pedagogical focus found in the accompanying text. Though the University of Toronto’s AI website featured no images, one of its webpages provided a link to a booklet titled the Student Rights and Responsibilities Series on AI, which included a single black-and-white image of an old-fashioned spring-weighing scale (Figure 1). Such an image implies AI’s relation to the law and justice. The black-and-white medium and the old-fashioned scale also evoke the relation of AI to some form of history that predated the student. Though the booklet explained that its purpose was to “outline clearly and simply what academic offences are to help you avoid committing one unwittingly,” which implies an educational focus and presumes innocence, the image of a scale contradictorily implies guilt. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 12 Figure 1. Weighing Scale. University of Toronto. Published by the Office of the Vice President Students at the University of Toronto. Used with permission. http://www.utoronto.ca/academicintegrity/Academic_integrity.pdf Laurentian University’s AI web presence included PDFs outlining policies and a message from the vice-president of Academic Affairs rather than an AI-specific website. This message curiously explained that integrity must be maintained given the public’s interest in the transparency and accountability of publicly funded universities. Besides assuring taxpayers of the university’s integrity, the vice-president’s message also stated that the European Union’s Bologna Process and other international quality assurance forums had “raised the bar for quality assurance of university programs,” and AI was one such measure to ensure standards. Although the definition of academic integrity includes far more than undergraduate plagiarism, interpreting AI as an opportunity for quality assurance certainly diverged from all other websites surveyed. Accompanying this message was a photograph of a wooden gavel atop a stack of leather-bound books (Figure 2). Unlike the weighing scale’s accompanying educational text, the gavel (law and order) and old books (history) accorded with the message’s appeal to history (the Bologna Process) and justice (standards of quality). Figure 2. Gavel. Laurentian University. Used with permission. http://www.laurentian.ca/Laurentian/Home/Departments/Provost_and_VicePresident_ Academic/ACADEMIC+INTEGRITY.htm?Laurentian_Lang=en-C Academic Integrity Slogan Images Several websites also employed what I am calling “slogan images”: staged photographs of people who were otherwise unconnected to visual markers of AI save for a catchphrase of some kind that ran across the image. One such example was the only image that appeared on Brock University’s AI website: a black-and-white shot of a woman’s face photographed from below as she looked out. The image’s accompanying text reads “Academic CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 13 Integrity [:] Think About It.” The image is dated or made to look dated, recalling perhaps the 1970s or 1980s, based on the quality of the photograph and the woman’s shirt and hairstyle. The woman appears unaware of the photograph being taken, perhaps implying to students that surveillance of academic dishonesty is panoptic. The woman is contemplative and, combined with the text instructing her (or us?) to “think about it,” suggests that the subject of the photo was contemplating whether or not to cheat, an image that was reminiscent of government anti-drug or anti-smoking advertisements directed at teenagers. Like the weighing scale and gavel, this image connotes a form of reprimand. The ambivalence, though, of the image accords with the two messages in the paragraphs below it: the Office of AI defined itself as “promoting awareness and providing educational opportunities regarding academic integrity on campus,” while explaining that “engaging in behaviours that are in breach of, or otherwise seek to abuse the University’s academic policy will not be tolerated.” Though not as punitive as the scale or the gavel, Brock’s slogan image accompanying its AI policy also relied on similar connotations. This image was in marked contrast to Brock’s Flash tutorial, which was image-based, educative, preventative, empowering, and one of the strongest examples of online AI tutorials I researched. Upon entering UOIT’s student AI site, the user is confronted with a slogan image of two women in caps, masks, gloves, and blue robes hovering over a bed in a hospital setting. The text to the right of the image states, “Would you want to have nurses who didn’t earn their degrees? Cheating affects everyone.” Such a slogan and image imply a few things. First, the anonymity granted to the two nurses via the cap, gown, and most thoroughly the mask perhaps mirror the apparent anonymity cheaters may assume they have, but what this website and image are attempting to literally unveil. Second, the image reflects UOIT’s aforementioned focus on connecting plagiarism and professionalism. Third, by explaining that “cheating affects everyone,” the image also invokes a sense of community and peer condemnation. Further, there is a societal threat of cheaters outside of the academic community: the image hails website users to imagine themselves as the patient on the bed. This same societal threat was invoked textually by the University of Guelph’s AI website, asking if readers “would want to be diagnosed by the doctor who really hadn’t learned the symptoms of a disease, or to eat meat that had been certified as contaminantfree by an inspector who paid someone to write his or her microbiology exam.” UOIT’s website visually evoked a similar meaning. The University of Windsor’s website presented slogan images as part of an annual Academic Integrity Poster Campaign. The website displays one poster (a slogan image) every year, beginning in 2005. Across the top of each poster is a noun associated with AI, such as honour, honesty, trust, and truth, with the university’s logo beneath. Every poster features the phrase Academic integrity matters. Earn your degree (original emphasis), with a new image every year. From 2005 to 2008, the poster campaigns communicated an air of surveillance or accusation. For instance, the poster in 2007 featured a child reaching into the proverbial cookie jar coupled with the phrase It’s about how you act when you think no one is watching (Figure 3). Similarly, the poster in 2008 included the phrase It’s a matter of choice adorning an image of a woman casting her eyes on her neighbour’s computer screen. The most recent posters, however, have taken a less punitive turn: the poster in 2009 featured hands grasping the edge of a precipice with the phrase Find the inner strength to climb your own mountain, and the poster in 2010 pre- CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 14 sented a bare-chested boy with a red cape and the phrase Let your own ideas take flight (Figure 4). This AI poster campaign clearly recognized the power of image and text in AI education. Though the earlier posters warned of surveillance, the latest three examples assumed innocence and empowered students to learn about AI. Figure 3. The 2007 Poster Campaign. University of Windsor. Reproduced with permission of the University of Windsor. http:// www.uwindsor.ca/aio/academic-integrityposter-campaign Figure 4. The 2010 Poster Campaign. University of Windsor. Reproduced with permission of the University of Windsor. http:// www.uwindsor.ca/aio/academic-integrityposter-campaign Images of Potential The final set of images I wish to discuss represented potential—to cheat or to resist temptation. McMaster’s AI website featured a slide show of six images; all were photographs of young students studying inside classrooms, cafeterias, libraries, and dormitories. Though the photographs could easily be usurped for a promotional package advertising McMaster life in general, their relationships to the AI text suggested scenarios with the potential for academic honesty or dishonesty. These ambiguous images were holding tanks for two meanings: teacher-sanctioned collaboration or collusion (Figure 5)? Computer-based research or undocumented copy-and-pasting (Figure 6)? UOIT’s AI homepage showed a young man with his arm around a multiple-choice test, obstructing his neighbour’s field of vision (Figure 7). McMaster’s AI slide show also featured a bird’s-eye-view image of hundreds of test-taking students in rows (Figure 8), perhaps putting the onus on faculty to avoid fostering temptation with crowded test-taking environments. These photographs could hardly be deemed punitive—found on any other webpage, they would not directly imply academic dishonesty (unlike the gavel or the scale). But given that the text described AI, each photograph was ostensibly a picture of successful learning with a margin for potential academic dishonesty. No subject in any of the photographs was presumed guilty, and all appeared to have the choice of strong academic values. This presentation implied that choice and locus of control could empower students to learn more. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013   Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 15 Figure 6. McMaster University. Used with permission. http://www.mcmaster.ca/academicintegrity/ Figure 5. McMaster University. Used with permission. http://www.mcmaster.ca/academicintegrity/   Figure 7. University of Ontario Institute of Technology. Used with permission. http://www.uoit.ca/EN/academicintegrityfaculty/ Figure 8. McMaster University. Used with permission. http://www.mcmaster.ca/academicintegrity/ Video AI websites are increasingly featuring video as a form of education. The University of Guelph’s AI website hosted a staged streaming video detailing a fictional scenario of academic dishonesty. In the video, a male student discussed with his friends a letter from the dean accusing him of academic misconduct. The student justified his misconduct (e.g., blaming the challenge and confusion of the assignment requirements) and explained his shoddy writing method (e.g., writing the night before and taking sources he had not read from an article’s reference list), but his friends challenged his justifications and methods. The video concluded with a fourth actor, who entered the scene to explain that she received the same letter from the dean about her paper, which contained parts she “borrowed” from the male student, who had loaned his computer to her. This video described a realistic scene of what led to the charges (lack of time management, plagiarism, and collusion), what the punishments would be, and the ensuing peer disapproval. Also based on scenarios, Ryerson University’s AI website included five 4-minute Flash-based cartoons (“episodes”) about four undergraduate characters. Among other potential issues, these characters see telephone-pole posters for paper mills (Figure 9), have writer’s block the night before a paper is due (Figure 10), and want to collaborate with peers when the project required individual work (Figure 11). The episodes referenced very current and common methods of academic dishonesty. As well, the episodes CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 16 presumed innocence first and documented peers who condemned and reacted strongly to potential academic dishonesty, mirroring the scholarship on peer disapproval. These visual components were relevant, well maintained, and above all educational. Expectations were clear, and preventative examples abounded in each episode.   Top left. Figure 9. Paper Mill Advertisements. Ryerson University. Used with Permission. http://www.ryerson.ca/academicintegrity/ Top right. Figure 10. Plagiarism Discussions. Ryerson University. Used with Permission. http://www.ryerson.ca/academicintegrity/ Left. Figure 11. Up the Night Before. Ryerson University. Used with Permission. http://www.ryerson.ca/academicintegrity/   Although Ryerson’s videos rendered imaginary scenarios of tempting prospects that tested the characters’ academic integrity, other AI videos were documentary-style and featured the “testimonials” of members of the university community condemning academic dishonesty. The AI videos of UOIT featured faculty, students, and alumni who spoke directly into the camera against academic dishonesty. In one such video, a UOIT student explained that other students do not respect academic dishonesty: “for students who put in all this effort . . . it just seems unfair.” Not only did the website communicate that other students disapproved of academic dishonesty, but that disapproval was coming from the voice and face of a fellow student. McMaster, too, hosted a series of videos featuring the academic integrity officer and faculty speaking directly to the camera. The University of Waterloo’s AI tutorial also adopted a “testimonial” component to its AI images. The tutorial includes photographs of students next to quotations that sympathize with fellow students and connected integrity to the workplace, but ultimately condemn academic dishonesty. Videos were an emerging trend and offered either imaginary (but highly realistic) scenarios or “real-life” testimonials of faculty and peers condemning plagiarism. The online tutorials that many schools offered (or hyperlinked to) were clearly video- and imagebased attempts at educating students on AI before they submitted assignments. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013   Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 17 Conclusion Any AI web presence is an attempt at education, which must be lauded given current AI scholarship. Sites that are clearly written, educational rather than punitive, and consistent (with images and text that complement rather than contradict one another) accord most with current research on AI. As well, websites that directly address students and differentiate among audiences, interpellating them as members of a community, serve as online AI education that incorporates current AI scholarship. As for images and video, they are not necessary to “teach” AI. This paper simply concludes that image-based inclusions are their own form of AI education and should not be under-theorized or regarded as annexed from the text-based message. Indeed, in addition to the many fantastic videos, tutorials, photographs, quizzes, and modules on Ontario AI websites are equally educational but exclusively text-based webpages. An interesting trend noted includes the University of Guelph’s guide on how not to commit academic dishonesty when working with images like graphs and photographs—a new form of the visual entering AI education. It will be interesting to see if AI websites begin to include Web 2.0 or social networking components, connecting with Gordon and Berhow’s (2009) work on dialogic university homepages. Though maintenance is an additional challenge to promoting AI digitally, many of the websites surveyed had links that remained broken during the two years of research for this study. This lack of attention from both the webmasters and the audience highlights the qualitative research that must be done on how or if students use these sites. If URLs remain broken for years, are students even using these sites? Are universities treating seriously the power of an AI website to educate students? Besides qualitative research to better understand student use, research must also be conducted to better understand the connection between AI websites and the likelihood a student will be academically honest. As an anecdote, a course for which I was a teaching assistant required all students to complete an online AI tutorial; the one student who plagiarized on the assignment had not completed the tutorial. Would his completion of the tutorial have helped him to be more academically honest? Qualitative interviews with students and teachers would build upon my research here and help to answer this question. AI websites are already examples of what they portend: most Ontario AI webpages include hyperlinks to other universities’ AI resources and are composed of quotations—from students, faculty, scholars (Queen’s AI website quotes Plato), and celebrities (Ryerson’s AI website quotes Winston Churchill, Janis Joplin, and Kurt Cobain). And whether institutions credit their source material via citations or not (a separate and ironic problem that should be remedied), AI websites—like other textual endeavours—are assembled from bits and pieces of other policies, books, and webpages, self-reflexively exemplifying that which they espouse. Understanding that every essay students write is always going to be composed of many, many other sources is perhaps the greatest learning curve for students: the originality comes from their assembly and interpretation of such sources. They need to learn how to credit their sources and to understand why doing so matters. An institution’s AI web presence may be the most accessible and dynamic form of such education. If these AI websites include reader-centred text, have a pedagogical thrust, differentiate among audiences, use image-based components purposely, and are accessible and well maintained, academic integrity efforts made at other institutional levels will be further bolstered. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 18 References Alma Mater Society of Queen’s University (2008, March). Promoting integrity: A student response to academic dishonesty: A survey of policies and procedures at Ontario universities. Retrieved from http://ai.cou.on.ca/downloads/Promoting%20Integrity.pdf Anderman, E. M., & Murdock, T. B. (2007). Psychology of academic cheating. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. Barthes, R. (1977). Image, music, text. New York, NY: Hill & Wang. Bayne, S., & Ross, J. (2007, December). The “digital native” and “digital immigrant”: A dangerous opposition. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Society for Research into Higher Education. Brighton, Sussex, UK. Retrieved from http://www. malts.ed.ac.uk/staff/sian/natives_final.pdf Bennett, S., and Maton, K. (2010). Beyond the “digital natives” debate: Towards a more nuanced understanding of students’ technology experiences. 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E., & Keith-Spiegel, P. (2001). Academic integrity as an institutional issue. Ethics and Behavior 11(3), 325–342. Yoo, S., & Jin., J. (2004). Investigation into the home page of the top 100 university websites. Academy of Management and Information Sciences Journal, 8(2), 17–24. Referenced Ontario University Websites Academic integrity. In Brock University. Retrieved from http://www.brocku.ca/ academic-integrity Academic integrity. In Carleton University. Retrieved from http://www2.carleton.ca/ studentaffairs/academic-integrity/ Academic integrity. In Lakehead University. Retrieved from http://vpacademic. lakeheadu.ca/academic-integrity/ Academic integrity. In Laurentian University. Retrieved from http://www. laurentian.ca/Laurentian/Home/Departments/Provost_and_VicePresident_Academic/ ACADEMIC+INTEGRITY.htm?Laurentian_Lang=en-CA Academic integrity. In McMaster University. Retrieved from http://www.mcmaster. ca/academicintegrity/ Academic integrity. In Nipissing University. 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Retrieved from http://www.uwo.ca/tsc/academic_integrity.htm Note 1 The AI website of Queen’s University invoked an academic community through its association with the International Center for Academic Integrity (ICAI), which is based at Clemson University, South Carolina. Membership in the organization, according to the ICAI’s homepage, provides member institutions (over 360 worldwide, including 10 in Ontario) with a community in which faculty and institutions can share techniques for researching, promoting, and assessing AI. Though many of the universities surveyed in this paper were also members of ICAI, none mentioned its affiliation as overtly as Queen’s did. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013 Academic Integrity Websites of Ontario Universities / J. Griffith 22 Acknowledgements I wish to thank the three anonymous CJHE reviewers for their most helpful feedback. As well, I wish to thank Paul Axelrod, Nikki Pascetta, Émilie Pigeon, Scott Coe, Denise Chilton, and the York Education Graduate Student Publishing Group for comments on earlier drafts. Many thanks for comments on this paper at the 2011 International Center for Academic Integrity Conference. Finally, I wish to thank Dianne Biin for my first introduction to academic integrity education. Contact Information Jane Griffith Faculty of Education Winters College York University 4700 Keele Street Toronto, ON M3J 1P3 Canada [email protected] Jane Griffith is a PhD student in Education at York University in Toronto. She is currently studying the history of Canadian literacy, specifically in residential schools. Her MA in English literature from the University of Victoria concentrated on 19th-century serialized fiction and visual culture. She has taught English at Camosun College in Victoria, British Columbia, and currently teaches English at Seneca College in Toronto. CJHE / RCES Volume 43, No. 1, 2013