The Canadian Journal of Higher Education La revue canadienne d'enseignement supérieur Volume XXVI-1,1996 Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges DAVID A. KEAST University of Alberta Abstract The effective administration o f postsecondary education depends, significant degree, u p o n sound and systematic judgments b y leaders in k e y administrative roles. "sound judgment" that combined w i t h basic value choices. Y e t , to date, o n e notices a conspicuous lack research o n decisions and values in higher education. T h e need for research m a y be urgent, given our present climate o f rapid change e c o n o m i c restraint. T h i s study e x a m i n e s the decision m a k i n g a n d of C E O s in public colleges. The paper provides of such and values and com- parison o f types o f decisions m a d e , the processes used in decision mak- ing, and the value choices w h i c h influence those an overview a educational T h e v i e w t a k e n i n this p a p e r is is c o m p r i s e d o f r a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s e s to decisions. This research was supported in part by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Thanks to Dr. J. Small, University of Alberta, and three anonymous reviewers for their valuable assistance in preparation of the final draft of this paper. 2 David A. Keast Résumé L a qualité de l'administration postsecondaire dépend dans le d o m a i n e de l'éducation e n b o n n e part de la qualité et de la l o g i q u e des c h o i x des dirigeants a u x postes clef des institutions d'enseignement. considère dans processus de valeurs décision de base. domaine de le p r é s e n t L a article rationnel recherche l'éducation qu'un "bon combiné choix" à l'adoption sur les d é c i s i o n s supérieure découle de certaines et les v a l e u r s fait pourtant défaut. O n d'un dans dans Or, le le c o n t e x t e actuel d e c h a n g e m e n t s rapides et d e r i g u e u r é c o n o m i q u e , c'est u n e r e c h e r c h e q u ' i l p e u t être u r g e n t d ' e n t r e p r e n d r e . dans O n se p e n c h e l a p r é s e n t e é t u d e s u r les p r i s e s d e d é c i s i o n et les v a l e u r s a d o p t é e s p a r les présidents de collèges publics. L'article est u n e v u e d'ensemble et c o m p a r a i s o n des types de décisions prises, des processus à l ' œ u v r e la p r i s e d e d é c i s i o n et des v a l e u r s a d o p t é e s q u i i n f l u e n t sur ces It w i l l b e w o r t h w h i l e at the outset to extract one or t w o une dans décisions. fundamental premises w h i c h f o r m a basis for the design o f the study w h i c h follows. T h e f i r s t c a n b e e x p r e s s e d v e r y s i m p l y : I t is a c c e p t e d as a b a s i c premise t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is b a s e d i n s o u n d a n d system- atic d e c i s i o n m a k i n g . difficult questions Having which said this, o n e is f a c e d w i t h a number will need to be addressed in order to c l e a r o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s i s s u e a n d its r e l e v a n c e f o r h i g h e r To state that administration of higher education is b a s e d of become education. in decision m a k i n g tells u s little a b o u t t y p e s o f decisions m a d e , a b o u t the p r o c e s s decision making, or about what values underlie important decisions. There cles that in m a n y is n o w acknowledgment in general administrative i m p o r t a n t w a y s , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is a v a l u e - b a s e d i t y , a n d t h a t t h e r e is a d e f i n i t e n e e d f o r a m o r e understanding thorough and o f the role o f values in administrative decisions. s e c o n d p r e m i s e c a n b e stated as f o l l o w s : sion m a k i n g will be value-based. of administrative sensitive Thus, Important administrative S i m p l y put, w h e r e there are cir- activ- a deci- adminis- t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s , t h e r e w i l l b e a n a p p e a l t o c e r t a i n v a l u e s as a b a s i s for decision the making. Given our present social and economic n e e d f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g v a l u e s is n o less u r g e n t i n h i g h e r Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. X X V I - 1 , J 996 Education climate, education. Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges The contemporary research o n decisions and values in 3 administration has b e e n affected b y a n u m b e r o f important historical forces, not the of which is t h e work of Barnard Functions of the Executive (1938) and Simon (1976). least In The B a r n a r d e x p l i c a t e s w h a t is, i n e s s e n c e , b o t h c o m p l e x theory o f decision a n d a theory o f the role o f morals in t i o n s . H o w e v e r , f o r B a r n a r d , it is t h e m o r a l e l e m e n t w h i c h is t h e m o s t cial. H e describes a theory of morals for organizations a organiza- in-terms cru- of the concept o f morals a n d definitions o f responsibility. B a r n a r d says o f morals: Morals are personal forces or propensities stable character in individuals or m o d i f y inconsistent immediate specific desires, or interests, a n d to intensify those w h i c h such propensities . . . . and control, impulses, are consistent W h e n t h e t e n d e n c y is s t r o n g a n d there exists a condition o f responsibility, (p. Barnard o f a general w h i c h tend to inhibit, with stable 261) further suggests that responsibility "is the p o w e r o f a particular private c o d e o f m o r a l s to control the c o n d u c t o f the individual in the presence o f strong contrary desires or i m p u l s e s " (p. 263). R e s p o n s i b i l i t y thus refers to a c o n s i s t e n c y b e t w e e n o n e ' s m o r a l c o d e a n d o n e ' s action, a state w h e r e internal morality b e c o m e s effective in action. C o n f o r m i t y to codes due to sanctions or negative inducements responsibility. It is, instead, a m a t t e r o f right is n o t , says Barnard, and w r o n g in the m o r a l a deep conviction, a n d not purely intellectual in character (pp. ship and moral creativeness as k e y sense, 265-266). B a r n a r d c l e a r l y r e g a r d e d the m o r a l e l e m e n t as f u n d a m e n t a l to organizational morals. M o r a l moral leader- in understanding the dimensions creativeness involves creating moral for other organizational members. I n its m o s t c o m m o n sense f o r m , it is establishing m o r a l e , or, adjusting attitudes, v a l u e s , a n d loyalties such t h e r e s u l t is s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l the organization. that interest in f a v o r o f the g o o d O n m o r a l creativeness and leadership B a r n a r d creation o f organizational morality grating factor, w h i c h binds forces o f individual it r e s t s (p. 282). Barnard saw as t h e s p i r i t , t h e c o h e s i v e a n d organizational members O n organization depends u p o n the quality o f leadership; and that quality derives f r o m breadth o f the morality u p o n w h i c h of suggests, " T h e c r e a t i v e f u n c t i o n a s w h o l e is t h e e s s e n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p " ( p . 2 8 1 ) . t h e m o r a l aspect o f l e a d e r s h i p h e states, " t h e e n d u r a n c e o f of codes and overcomes the the intethe interest. Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 4 David A. Keast In Administrative decision m a k i n g "The Behavior, as central task o f 'deciding' it is c l e a r t h a t in the theory pervades Simon (1976) o f administration. the entire administrative q u i t e as m u c h as d o e s t h e t a s k o f ' d o i n g ' . . . " regarded H e states, organization ( p . 1). I t is a l s o c l e a r h e r e g a r d e d v a l u e j u d g m e n t s as p l a y i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n that administra- t i v e decisions. F o r e x a m p l e , h e states: "Decisions they are s o m e t h i n g m o r e than factual propositions possess, in addition, an imperative quality—they o n e f u t u r e state o f affairs in p r e f e r e n c e to a n o t h e r . . . I n they have an Although Simon ethical as w e l l as a f a c t u a l c o n t e n t " (p. acknowledged the importance short, 46). of value judgments, a l s o a d h e r e d t o a strict s e p a r a t i o n o f fact a n d v a l u e , that is, a o f "is" statements and "ought" value judgment. the latter b y is q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m " T h e process o f the process o f validating fiat" (p. 56). Simon, along with the One posiunder- values. o f S i m o n ' s m a i n influences has been the advance o f tic" m o d e l s in the study o f decision making. the factual/scientific This approach side o f decision research and, "rationalisemphasized although the role values w a s a c k n o w l e d g e d , there w a s a n e e d to e x e m p t values f r o m sis a facts, logical tivists, ultimately a s s u m e d that there w a s n o objective g r o u n d for standing cap- validating T h e f o r m e r is v a l i d a t e d b y its a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e human he separation statements. T h e f o l l o w i n g assertion tures S i m o n ' s v i e w o n the is/ought question: a factual proposition . . . select o f the administrative decision making process. The of analy- impulse by researchers after S i m o n seemed to be to attempt to ignore or r e m o v e value considerations Drake, 1978; 1976; Struefert,1978; Suedfeld, 1978). f r o m decision research ( B e a c h , Mintzberg, Raisinghani, & Although Barnard e m p h a s i z e d the importance administration, Theoret, (1938), there even before Mitchell & Simon, o f the m o r a l element continued to be an had recognized and in an understanding emphasis on of rationalistic approaches to and descriptions o f decision processes in organizations. M o r e recent research in educational administration has revived est in the i m p o r t a n t role o f v a l u e s in decision m a k i n g . The studies w h i c h examine decisions and values, although not highly lent, are n o w becoming more Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 common. Education inter- existence It w o u l d b e accurate to of prevasuggest Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges that these studies, m o s t l y conducted in the K - 1 2 sector o n the 5 decisions a n d values o f principals and superintendents, n o w f o r m a distinct knowl- e d g e base u p o n w h i c h further systematic i n q u i r y in this area c a n proceed (see, for 1990; example, Campbell, 1989; Moorhead Ashbaugh 1992; & & Kasten, 1984; Campbell-Evans, Nediger, 1991; Raun, 1991; Begley & Leithwood, Leithwood 1992; and Walker, & Stager, 1991). This research focus has, in turn, been inspired b y the emergence o f philosophical i n q u i r y o f the t y p e e x e m p l i f i e d b y writers s u c h as H o d g k i n s o n 1983) and Greenfield (1980, (1978, 1982, 1986). These writers have advocated shift in v i e w p o i n t in administrative theory t o w a r d the importance o f u e s , a n d h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is e s s e n t i a l l y a activity. Hodgkinson (1986) even advocates the d a w n a val- value-laden of a "new para- d i g m , " indeed, a possible p a r a d i g m shift, w i t h a v i e w t o w a r d s n e w direc- tions in research, theory, a n d practice. T h e s e m o r e recent trends h a v e a m a r k e d influence on the conduct o f inquiry in educational tion a n d in the The field had administra- o f education in general. o f understanding the nature o f administrative deci- sion m a k i n g c a n n o t be overstated, especially g i v e n the fact that this deci- sion importance making takes place in, is p a r t i a l l y and by, tive decisions lies s i m p l y i n the fact that s u c h j u d g m e n t the m o s t complexity shaped context. texts w h e r e The and organizational important judgments significance directly a social of occurs in effect the significant n u m b e r s o f others w h o live and w o r k in those same I f it is t r u e t h a t s u c h j u d g m e n t s decisions organizational and What A n d administrative It is, w i t h o u t doubt, particu- is n o t e w o r t h y , h o w e v e r , is t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s t u d y o f decisions i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n t h e r e is a c o n s p i c u o u s a b s e n c e o f s u c h r e s e a r c h ities. A preliminary from 1984 any education. a n d v a l u e s is n o w b e c o m i n g e s t a b l i s h e d i n g e n e r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e Alberta of which this surely applies in a l m o s t setting. of contexts. are value-laden, then the i m p o r t a n c e is u n d e n i a b l e . larly relevant for higher con- lives studying a n d understanding the nature o f decisions and the values underlie and administra- review o f library holdings to the present s h o w s activ- at the U n i v e r s i t y little in the w a y o f theory research related to ethics or values a n d decision m a k i n g in h i g h e r tion. Searches o f the E R I C circles, of or educa- database also revealed o n l y small n u m b e r s of Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 6 David A. Keast studies in this area. T h e roughly literature w h i c h three categories: ing, a n d ethics or values. by far the most depend for Bensimon, been Neumann, but even studies theory on here, and research and Birnbaum in business mak- in higher from other fields. ( 1 9 8 9 ) suggest that "leadership organizations, the military, and the has governmental educa- (p. 7). E x a m p l e s o f studies in higher education tend to focus definitions and responsibilities o f leadership are education a g e n c i e s , b u t little attention has b e e n g i v e n to leadership in h i g h e r tion . . . " into decision L e a d e r s h i p theories a n d leadership studies plentiful, a foundation studied does exist can be divided leadership theory and research, a n d to a d v o c a t e on an a p p r o a c h to g o v e r n a n c e based o n a k n o w l e d g e and application o f various theories o f leadership and conceptual frameworks for understanding nizational functioning Birnbaum, 1989; a recent w o r k , nature Birnbaum, Birnbaum o f leadership to i m p r o v e for example 1986, (1992) and the relations w h i c h p r o m o t e tions o n h o w (see 1987, 1988; provides sources Bensimon, academic and Vaughan, a comprehensive o f effective institutional renewal, 1989). view leadership, and makes leadership. orga- N e u m a n n , of & In the including recommenda- I n this t y p e o f research, emphasis o n decision m a k i n g tends to be placed o n organizational deci- s i o n p r o c e s s e s , w i t h little o r n o s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f the d e c i s i o n mak- ing o f leaders or relations b e t w e e n decisions and values. A s i d e f r o m the general context o f leadership theory and research, erature pertaining sparse. One specifically example o f case studies w i t h as a n important to leadership is P l a n t e ' s suggested basis for decision making (1987) w o r k which provides a number solutions and clearly emphasizes decision making. Prior to 1984, in leadership. However, in both these w o r k s , do not provide enough decision discussions either too brief or too generalized and applicable in a variety o f and therefore values Dressel's ( 1 9 8 1 ) w o r k is n o t a b l e f o r a d d r e s s i n g b o t h e t h i c s o r v a l u e s a n d making and values Hodgkinson, Stager, in the area. (see Given Ashbaugh & systematic theory-building more contemporary Kasten, 1983; McPhail-Wilcox & 1984; Bryant, work on which empiri- decisions Campbell-Evans, 1988; 1988; and Leithwood 1 9 8 9 , as e x a m p l e s ) D r e s s e l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g ethics appears s o m e w h a t Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 dated. Education are contexts, could f o r m a foundation for focused conceptual frameworks and cal research lit- appears & and Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges M u c h 271 o f the w o r k o n ethics in higher education focuses quite exten- sively o n the professional roles o f leaders a n d codes o f professional duct. W i l c o x a n d E b b s ( 1 9 9 2 ) discuss the importance o f ethics for education, e x a m i n e theories o f leadership and organizational frames, and address and standards the ethical aspects o f professional o f professional conduct. Thompson's higher conceptual roles o f (1991) con- leaders edited work contains theoretical and philosophical papers o n topics ranging f r o m val- ues in institutes o f higher education to the m o r a l responsibilities o f uni- versities in society. Robinson and Moulton discussion o f the m a j o r ethical theories (1985) and explore provide a brief issues s u c h as the u n i v e r s i t y a n d its r e l a t i o n t o s o c i e t y , e t h i c s i n h i r i n g a n d e v a l u a t i o n , ethics in research and teaching. May's (1990) edited w o r k and contains accounts o f the relationship and importance o f ethics a n d organizational c u l t u r e , ethics i n a c t i v i t i e s s u c h as p l a n n i n g , r e c r u i t m e n t , selection, letics, a n d e v a l u a t i o n , a n d a discussion o f a v a r i e t y o f other m o r a l I n q u i r y directed specifically to the question o f values in higher c a t i o n is s c a r c e . B u r t o n C l a r k ( 1 9 8 2 , haps the only education. values, one) o f a value Clark 1983) provides classification scheme posited four value categories competence relevant for or quality oriented values, values edu- one example including social ath- issues. (perhigher justice o f liberty or free- d o m , a n d v a l u e s o f l o y a l t y . T h e s e f o u r v a l u e sets are d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n to different Dennison's typology, aspects of governance (forthcoming) is t h e only work, k n o w n and which w o r k organizational analyzes o f this and kind functioning. discusses in Clark's Canada addresses the question o f values in the c o m m u n i t y college which setting. Literature w h i c h discusses the decision m a k i n g o f leaders in higher e d u c a t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e v a l u e b a s e s o f s u c h d e c i s i o n s is a l m o s t non-existent. The work of Vaughan (1992) and Smith (1984, 1985) n o t a b l e as b e i n g a m o n g the o n l y e x a m p l e s f o u n d . V a u g h a n ' s e d i t e d work specifically addresses decision m a k i n g a n d ethics in the c o m m u n i t y l e g e s e t t i n g . T h e p r o b l e m h e r e , as is t h e c a s e w i t h m u c h o f t h e p r e v i o u s l y discussed o n ethics in h i g h e r education, are m a d e by a variety o f practitioners is col- literature is t h a t contributions a n d are p r i m a r i l y descriptions b a s e d o n p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h little g r o u n d i n g in s y s t e m a t i c theory or empirical research and, therefore, with f e w unifying influences. Aside Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 8 David A. Keast from this, Smith recounts a study o f values and institutional decision m a k i n g in eight a c a d e m i c organizations c o n d u c t e d u n d e r the auspices the Society for Values in H i g h e r Education. Unfortunately, S m i t h ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n , little w r i t i n g exists d o c u m e n t i n g s t u d y Overall, without a variety the benefit of approaches o f clearly and topics seems apart of from findings. to be present, defined theoretical underpinnings, com- m o n c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s , or a central focus. A s w i l l b e seen in a later section o f this discussion, the types o f critical decisions w h i c h respon- dents in this study faced w e r e n o t essentially different in k i n d f r o m faced by administrators research is b e i n g importance general, in other educational conducted. If what o f decision making was sectors said and values in the t y p e o f stakeholders higher education as c o m p a r e d with higher education are, nonetheless, and similar concerning the is t r u e f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n it w i l l b e n o less t r u e f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . variation in w h i c h earlier those scope for o f variables other sectors, educational Allowing in some found in crucial decisions in decisions, and therefore fraught w i t h c o m p l e x value choices. W h a t m a y be lacking in analyses of p o l i c y , p l a n n i n g , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , a n d a p p r a i s a l i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is a n awareness o f underlying values which inevitably form a foundation these activities. A n emphasis o n this apparently ignored administration in postsecondary education m a y allow for a broader o f organizational functioning based on a deeper understanding o f istrative behavior. Government policies and for dimension socio-economic of view admin- constraints m a y indeed i m p i n g e in n u m e r o u s w a y s o n the functioning o f higher edu- cation institutions but from within institutions themselves it is u l t i m a t e l y the j u d g m e n t t h a t sets t h e c o u r s e that c o m e s for future develop- m e n t , a n d it is t h e v a l u e s w h i c h u n d e r p i n t h o s e j u d g m e n t s w h i c h a r e c r u cial for understanding leadership in higher education. W h a t n e e d e d is n o t o n l y a f o c u s o n e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s w h i c h a f f e c t m a y institutional functioning but also e x a m i n a t i o n o f the decision processes w h i c h organizational be drive functioning. I n the m o s t general sense, the m a i n p u r p o s e o f this s t u d y w a s to exam- ine relations b e t w e e n administrative decision m a k i n g and the values which influenced analysis, those decisions. The design o f the and interpretation were guided b y Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 Education study, data four m a i n research collection, questions Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges 9 relating to (a) the types o f decisions m a d e b y respondents, (b) the possibility o f patterns i n d e c i s i o n s a n d v a l u e s as t h e y relate to d e c i s i o n t y p e s , the nature o f the decision process used b y respondents, and (d) the o f similarity in values among respondents. In addition, one (c) extent important u n d e r l y i n g intention w a s to bring the p r o b l e m o f decisions a n d values to a sector o f education - in this case, public colleges - research o f this k i n d now exists. little o r no study afforded an opportunity The in w h i c h to e x a m i n e v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s o f critical decision cases a n d to relate these to the values w h i c h underlie decision m a k i n g processes. Framework The conceptual components: framework a decision employed classification f o r this study consists scheme or typology, of a three decision process m o d e l , and the identification o f values. Research o n school cipals conducted b y Ashbaugh and Kasten (1984) provided inspiration for the decision typology, h o w e v e r , the theoretical originates These in the writings authors according to described of Kimbrough different administrative task. and Nunnery types This, the initial framework (1983, of administrative in turn, amounts prin- 1988). decisions to different a s p e c t s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o p e r a t i o n o v e r w h i c h a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r is to h a v e decision making responsibility. p o s e d e i g h t d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s as 1. Organizational ing in order address strategic 2. Kimbrough and Nunnery mission communication, statements planning, and re-structur- or objectives, or other operational or needs. C u r r i c u l u m a n d instruction; decisions involving the tion and pro- follows: structure; decisions w h i c h i n v o l v e to realize likely management including program of teaching and learning organizaprocesses, evaluation. 3. F i n a n c e ; decisions i n v o l v i n g choices about scarce resources. 4. Management support of services equipment instructional support services; including purchases, and decisions transportation, so on, and regarding food supervision all services, of non- personnel. Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 David A. Keast 10 5. Staff personnel administration; decisions based on policies covering instructional personnel including recruitment, selec- tion, promotion, dismissal, evaluation, and professional devel- opment. 6. Student personnel decisions; all decisions students but not related to curriculum a n d 7. directly related to instruction. B u i l d i n g s a n d facilities; decisions c o n c e r n i n g capital d e v e l o p m e n t . 8. School-community relations; decisions w i t h various external c o m m u n i t y concerning relations stakeholders. T w o points are w o r t h m e n t i o n regarding the decision typology. it w a s n o t e x p e c t e d t h a t c a s e s r e c e i v e d w o u l d f a l l c l e a r l y a n d within one type existed where, or another. for example, There were in fact cases in w h i c h a c a s e c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d as First, exclusively overlap organizational structure a n d finance simultaneously. T h u s , the criterion w h i c h stood as p r i m a r y basis for or, simply, w h a t the case w a s classification. The essentially about, classification o f decision researcher w a s c o n f i r m e d b y r e s p o n d e n t s in all s e r v e d as cases was applied study, it w a s minor in the principalship modifications applied in the postsecondary and refinements setting, setting. would by while and in the It w a s Kasten present expected be necessary. categories proposed b y K i m b r o u g h and N u n n e r y (1988). N o cases were received from the respondent that In total, cases w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m respondents w h i c h fell into seven o f the sonnel group. In type and The second component addition, 1 displays all cases o b t a i n e d o f the conceptual o f a rational m o d e l that this m o d e l has been strongly which it. F r o m the w o r k precedes framework o f decision making. influenced of Simon by used for I t is furby the b o d y (1976) process steps o r stages. A Theoret is e x p l a i n e d few (1976) by being broken of research onwards, decision down into e x a m p l e s w i l l illustrate. M i n t z b e r g , in Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 studying Education organizational this undeniable studies h a v e stressed a rational v i e w o f decision m a k i n g , one w h e r e and per- sub-type. study consists decision 24 eight student m i n o r n a m e c h a n g e s w e r e m a d e i n o n e o r t w o c a t e g o r i e s , as w e l l as ther divisions into sub-categories. Table a the instances. S e c o n d , t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c h e m e as u s e d b y A s h b a u g h (1984) out decision the identifiable Raisinghani, processes Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges Table 11 1 Breakdown of Number of Cases by Type Type N u m b e r o f Cases Personnel 10 (Staff Personnel 7) ( A d m . Personnel 3) Organizational Redevelopment (Planning (Restructuring Buildings & 6 4) 2) Facilities 3 Finance 2 C. 1 & I . Board Relations Support Services 1 A d m . 1 Total 24 described three basic decision selection—in which development, and c o u l d b e f o u n d further stages or sub-routines. The result o f this analysis w a s seven Wilcox different a general m o d e l variations and Bryant (1988) stages—identification, of decision which making. f o r m e d the basis Similarly, for MacPhail- in a r e v i e w o f literature o n decision making, s u g g e s t that " at least three m a j o r stages a p p e a r w i t h s o m e c o n s i s t e n c y the literature" (p. 8). T h e stages identified b y these authors are (a) ception gathering, and information processing, and (c) choice (b) information manipulation in perand strategies. T h e r e are, in addition, a n u m b e r o f assumptions concerning the validity o f rational decision m o d e l s a n d their prevalence in practice w h i c h are w o r t h mentioning. First, although w e can n e v e r be certain because w e d o not, per se, h a v e direct k n o w l e d g e o f the m e n t a l o p e r a t i o n s o f d e c i s i o n m a k e r s , we Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 12 David A. Keast can infer o n the basis o f experience, observations o f others, a n d common sense, that m o s t i m p o r t a n t administrative decisions are rational in nature. In other w o r d s , w h e n administrators are faced w i t h c o m p l e x d i l e m m a s they are m o s t l i k e l y to d e v e l o p r e a s o n e d strategies a n d solutions to those dilemmas. A n o t h e r w a y o f s t a t i n g t h i s is t o a s k w h e t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s c a n a f f o r d n o t t o m a k e a d e q u a t e l y r e a s o n e d decisions o n i m p o r t a n t issues. T h i s inference is b o r n e out not o n l y in previous research but also in analysis o f data in the pilot s t u d y c o n d u c t e d f o r this research. D e c i s i o n m a k e r s t e n d e d n o t to rely o n alternate m o d e s o f decision m a k i n g w h e n asked about such things h u n c h e s or gut feelings. A l t h o u g h these w e r e present, administrators to distance themselves o f the given from tended these feelings a n d strive for a n objective S e c o n d , justification o f the use o f decision models in distinct alternatives to a rational v i e w if not problem view situation. administration other t h a n those w h i c h are rational seems problematic. Interest in scarce, non-existent arises, o f course, o f decision making in administrative in not o n l y research. purely is, as o f A n yet, additional the testing o f such a m o d e l e v e n i n its d e s c r i p t i o n o r e x p l i c a t i o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , c o u l d t h e r e b e t h i n g s as m o d e l s , n e c e s s a r i l y l o g i c a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d , w h i c h are nal or a-rational? H o w what as grounds but such non-ratio- w o u l d such m o d e l s b e described a n d tested or, could we discern that such a m o d e l , on if constructed, had a n y d e g r e e o f v a l i d i t y ? R a t h e r , it is s u g g e s t e d h e r e t h a t a n e f f e c t i v e way t o i d e n t i f y v a l u e s is b y l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h e r a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s into the value that dimension. Once t h i s is a c c o m p l i s h e d , we shall discover values are n o t entities distinct f r o m decision m a k i n g but s i m p l y i m p o r t a n t a n d f u n d a m e n t a l aspect o f d e c i s i o n process itself. T o another say a j u d g m e n t is r a t i o n a l is s i m p l y t o s u g g e s t t h a t a c h o i c e h a s b e e n between alternatives, or between consequences, or goals, that made or based non-consequentialist principles or convictions. T h i s choice, in turn, poses that basic reasons can be given for choosing A over B , and giving o f reasons constitutes something akin to implicit or explicit statements; in other w o r d s , question " W h y A A over diagrammatic displayed in Figure the value such statements constitute an a n s w e r to the B?" representation of a model for decision process 1. T h i s m o d e l w a s neither totally p r e c o n c e i v e d Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 on sup- Education is nor Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges totally emergent. a n d reflects Although the modifications general the m o d e l framework and refinements provided for were a guide analysis made for interviews o f decision as a result o f 13 process, sub-categories e m e r g i n g f r o m analysis o f data. T h e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s , a s d e p i c t e d , is c o m p o s e d o f t h r e e g e n e r a l and a number of major components stages or categories. First, prerequisite m o s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n s , r a t i o n a l o r n o t , is i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d tion o f a problem or dilemma - in effect, a conflict - in Figure defini- b e t w e e n real states affairs a n d those that are ultimately desired. T h e representation p r o b l e m definition, perceptions o f others, identifying stakeholders, factors. T h i s firmed stage corresponds to m u c h research and w a s of provided 1 d e p i c t s t h e p r o b l e m d e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e as b e i n g c o m p r i s e d m a t i o n gathering, a n d the effects o f p o l i c y a n d procedures a n d to of infor- historical roughly con- consists o f a n u m b e r o f cate- in the pilot study. T h e n e x t stage, solution d e v e l o p m e n t , gories including alternatives considered, non-rational factors i n v o l v e d decisions, constraints identified, strategies used, a n d predicted o f decisions. which borne Finally, a choice the implementation is m a d e to c o m m i t out in action through outcomes emerge to stage represents action. implementation. The the point decision Expected in response to i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and and actual is model depicted in F i g u r e 1 will be discussed at finally unexpected constraints i m p i n g e at all p o i n t s in the d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s . T h e n a t u r e o f the process in outcomes again decision in more detail in a later section. T h e t h i r d i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k is t h e fication o f values. A ceptual f r a m e w o r k and in projecting an idea o f w h a t one m i g h t find upon identi- n u m b e r o f sources were used in designing the conducting research into values. retical a n d empirical w o r k of Rokeach For example, (1973) con- possibly both the theo- on values and value sys- t e m s h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e . H e d e f i n e d a v a l u e as " a n e n d u r i n g b e l i e f that a specific m o d e of conduct or end-state o f existence socially preferable to an opposite or converse m o d e state o f e x i s t e n c e " each, which in turn, (p. 5). Rokeach divided into t w o concern end-states distinguished types. is p e r s o n a l l y o f conduct or of values, T e r m i n a l values are those beliefs o f existence, and they two may kinds or end- either be of the Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 o a r~ ö s G S- Figure 1 The Decision Process b a < Si S » S 3 Problem Development Solution Development Solution & Implementation b TO a 09 3- g Ö Outcomes -(Expected & Unexpected) Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges 15 self-centered or society-centered type. O n e m a y be concerned with peace o f m i n d as a p e r s o n a l end-state, o r w i t h w o r l d p e a c e o r b r o t h e r h o o d an interpersonal end-state. Instrumental values, those concerning o f conduct rather than end-states, m a y be m o r a l or competence as modes oriented. T h u s , b e i n g h o n e s t o r r e s p o n s i b l e is m o r a l , w h i l e a c t i n g i n t e l l i g e n t l y imaginatively is c o n c e r n e d w i t h c o m p e t e n c e v a l u e s . Rokeach also or sug- g e s t e d t h a t t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f v a l u e s h u m a n b e i n g s h o l d is a s s u m e d b e relatively small. H e estimated that the total n u m b e r o f terminal to values t h a t a g r o w n p e r s o n p o s s e s s e s is a b o u t " a d o z e n a n d a h a l f , " a n d t h e t o t a l number o f i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s is s o m e w h a t d o z e n " (p. five or 11). R o k e a c h believed that h u m a n values are finite in and therefore such six number measurable. B e c k (cited in C a m p b e l l - E v a n s , others larger, "perhaps as R o k e a c h , 1973) 1988) seemed to believe (along with based in h u m a n need a n d since individuals a n d groups h a v e similar basic needs a n d are faced with similar types o f problems, exists. H e identified that values w e r e set o f u n i v e r s a l values sets o r t y p e s o f v a l u e s : ( a ) b a s i c h u m a n five a fairly c o m m o n values including, for e x a m p l e , survival, happiness, self-respect, k n o w l e d g e , freedom; courage, (b) moral and values self-control; including such concepts as and responsibility, (c) social and political values including jus- tice, d u e process, a n d participation; (d) intermediate-range values includ- ing values food, shelter, entertainment, and fitness; and (e) specific i n c l u d i n g s u c h t h i n g s as a car, a g o o d t e l e v i s i o n , a p a r t i c u l a r or a particular sport. values be should Beck regarded further suggested that the categorization as f l u i d and open. Values v i e w e d i n i s o l a t i o n b u t r a t h e r as p a r t o f a n i n t e r a c t i n g T w o friendship, should system. types, and associated concepts s u c h as ethics different and morals, vary w i d e l y a m o n g r e s e a r c h e r s . I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , s t a t e m e n t s c o d e d as ues w e r e d e e m e d to h a v e m o r a l or ethical i m p o r t b e y o n d levels. N o interest w a s taken in statements w h i c h may in relation to c o m p l e x or wrongness decisions and o f action ensuing from val- individualistic have reflected m e r e p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e . V a l u e s w e r e r e g a r d e d as e x p r e s s i o n s o f principles Tightness of be p r o b l e m s are apparent in attempts to u n d e r s t a n d values in rela- tion to value classification schemes. First, definitions o f values, value not as i n d i c a t i o n s such decisions A moral of the value Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 16 David A. Keast j u d g m e n t or choice, therefore, m a y be taken to h a v e m o r a l content, and to be r o u g h l y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h an ethical or m o r a l j u d g m e n t or choice. A s e c o n d p r o b l e m relates to the m e t h o d o f classifying values a n d the validity o f value categorization schemes in research. In the present study, theories o f value and value systems, although informative, merely as a r o u g h background for the coding cases, the transposition o f v a l u e cepts. Thus, value schemes statements o f values into m o r e served their p r i m a r y lists i n t h e r e p o r t i n g o f data. O n e and served in a as reference ent researchers. F o r e x a m p l e , values reflected in statements like good for kids" were classified and Kasten (1984). as a t y p e Similar scendent values b y Begley (1988). ethic" w a s con- m a i n r e a s o n f o r t h i s a p p r o a c h is there appear to be discrepancies in the classification o f values b y Ashbaugh few generalized purpose o f organizational findings were differ- value tran- T h e statement "I have a strong work statements represent organizational values. scendent b y ments cannot be permitted" Ashbaugh and Kasten, as r e f l e c t i n g political v a l u e s by c l a s s i f i e d as r e g a r d e d as a t r a n s c e n d e n t v a l u e b y o f others that "What's Ashbaugh and Kasten; h o w e v e r , it c o u l d b e e a s i l y a r g u e d w i t h i n a n e d u c a t i o n a l s e t t i n g t h a t the rights to The was such statement "Violation a g a i n c l a s s i f i e d as of tran- yet, the classification o f such state- does not seem inappropriate. These types o f discrepancies raise a larger question concerning the validity of classification in systems further research. s u c h as t h o s e m e n t i o n e d above, and their use T h a t is, t h e r e s e e m s to b e v e r y little l o g i c a l grounding f o r arbitrary classifications w h e r e specific values are p l a c e d in o n e cate- g o r y rather than another. Indeed, w e b e c o m e plagued b y the p r o b l e m p r o v i d i n g g o o d r e a s o n s f o r c l a s s i f y i n g a c o n c e p t s u c h as truth of as a basic h u m a n v a l u e , o r a m o r a l v a l u e , as o p p o s e d t o a s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l value. T h e r e f o r e , o n e i m p o r t a n t respect in w h i c h this study differs f r o m pre- v i o u s r e s e a r c h is t h a t a l t h o u g h o t h e r v a l u e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s w e r e u s e d as background, no preconceived value categorization system was imposed a priori in the analysis o f data. A s i d e f r o m the o b v i o u s educational text in w h i c h the study w a s placed, any classification o f values the n u m e r o u s problems associated with preconceived Education In this classifica- t i o n s o f v a l u e s s u c h as m o r a l , p o l i t i c a l , b a s i c h u m a n , t e r m i n a l , o r Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 con- identified a n d c o d e d in data exists o n l y in relation to the decision typology. way, a instru- Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges mental, can be avoided. Given that v a l u e j u d g m e n t s do not exist in v a c u u m b u t a r e , r a t h e r , c o n t e x t d e p e n d e n t , i t is e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e cation o f values in relation to types o f decisions m a d e b y will enhance the transfer o f 17 a identifi- administrators knowledge. Method Design and Data Collection A qualitative, emphasis two-phase design was adopted for this project o n multiple case study analysis a n d comparison. The dent group consisted o f presidents in ten public colleges in the of Alberta. T w o rounds o f interviews were conducted with w h i c h resulted in t w o phases o f data collection and All respondents were required first three critical decision presidents. incidents Respondents and requesting which were they asked to province respondents analysis. sent an introductory steps o f data collection with respon- letter e x p l a i n i n g the that they recall t w o faced in their roles had to as describe cases which they r e g a r d e d as d i f f i c u l t i n t h a t p r o b l e m s a n d s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b l e m s w e r e clear-cut, and important to the institution in terms o f teaching a n d within their decision making jurisdiction not learning, in that decisions m a d e directly b y t h e m or w e r e ones for w h i c h they t o o k direct were responsi- bility. T h e s e decision incidents w e r e then returned for analysis and clas- sification, Tape recorded, and were u s e d to set t h e stage f o r P h a s e semi-structured dent based on I interviews. interviews were conducted with each the decision cases w h i c h they had submitted. scripts o f interviews w e r e prepared a n d subsequently c o d e d a n d analyzed. processes Analysis involved implicit in decision o f Phase I interviews in resolving the f o c u s e d first o n the cases, and second, respondents was selected f r o m the original group representative important cases, upon tran- content decision values making. I n Phase II, a simulation approach w a s used. A two respon- Full cases chosen from those sub-sample were chosen w h o four a n d asked to react initially received. in this selection that participants not v i e w their o w n thus, respondents of It to was decision were not original authors of the cases u s e d in P h a s e II. T h e choice o f cases f o r P h a s e II w a s b a s e d on Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 18 David A. Keast the types o f decision incidents received, a n d o n the clarity a n d a m o u n t revision or alteration necessary in order to maintain confidentiality, at t h e s a m e t i m e p r e s e r v e t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e case. A g a i n , of and interviews in this p h a s e w e r e a n a l y z e d for decision process a n d values. T h e allowed for analyses and comparisons both within and between design phases. Data Analysis The data collected in this study w e r e subjected to a n u m b e r o f forms o f analysis. Specific data on characteristics different o f the cases them- selves, or case attribute data, w e r e collected prior to each Phase I inter- v i e w . T h e p u r p o s e o f these data w e r e to enhance the overall picture o f the types o f cases obtained for the study. Similar data w e r e collected again in P h a s e I I i n t e r v i e w s f o r p u r p o s e s o f later c o m p a r i s o n across phases. Analysis o f decision process and values in the first p h a s e of v i e w s included three passes o n the data to ensure consistency in Data summary both the sheets w e r e frequency also used a l l o w i n g o f occurrence inter- coding. for detailed analysis o f responses and the of content o f responses. I n addition, case s u m m a r i e s w e r e written b y the researcher on each case highlighting only the most salient points. The case summaries w e r e used to enrich description and corroborate previous Values analysis in Phase I f o l l o w e d tion o f other categories. sumed under others, Aside and the from findings. a similar process to some coded identification of responses identificabeing synonymous codings, values w e r e subjected to n o further interpretation. Profiles o f case were then created based on cumulative analyses for Phase sub- types I. Profiles consisted o f a s u m m a r y o f findings o n type-specific patterns in decision process a n d in values, b y case type. In analysis o f data f r o m a second round o f interviews, or, P h a s e interviews, consistency w i t h methods established in Phase I w a s as i m p o r t a n t . Therefore, two passes o n these data w e r e regarded included. c o d i n g s c h e m e d e v e l o p e d in Phase I w a s f o u n d to be generally were prepared based on identified in the first each case interview. Similarly, p h a s e w e r e u s e d as a " b a c k d r o p " f o r v a l u e s in P h a s e II. I n all, o n l y o n e additional v a l u e - Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 Education The applicable in P h a s e II. O n l y t w o n e w sub-categories w e r e adopted. A g a i n , case maries II sum- values analysis academic freedom - was Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges identified w h i c h did not occur in Phase I. P r o f i l e s w e r e 19 created which discussed and s u m m a r i z e d decision process and values findings in o f the cases used in Phase A final approach II. consisted o f analysis o f data across both Three components o r sets o f d a t a w e r e c o m p a r e d : f r o m both phases, (b) findings a n d (c) findings each phases. (a) case attribute for the decision process in both for values in both phases. In addition, three data phases, possibilities for type-specific patterns w e r e considered: (a) patterns identified only Phase I, (b) patterns identified o n l y in Phase II, and (c) patterns to b o t h phases. Profiles in common o f case types w e r e used to enhance the explo- ration o f type-specific patterns across b o t h phases o f data. Summary of Findings O f t h e t h r e e m a i n sets o f d a t a c o l l e c t e d i n this s t u d y , results f r o m sis o f p r e - i n t e r v i e w d a t a o n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c a s e s a r e and therefore will n o t be reported in this discussion. Data analy- inconclusive from inter- v i e w s in Phase I a n d Phase II w e r e analyzed for the decision process values. T h e m a i n findings f r o m a n a l y s i s o f e a c h o f t h e s e d a t a sets w i l l d i s c u s s e d i n t u r n . G i v e n r e s t r i c t i o n s o f t i m e , it w a s n o t p o s s i b l e t o duct interviews o n the one support services administration case therefore, analysis and and explanation received; and values is O f all m a j o r constructs investigated in this s t u d y the d e c i s i o n process, by based o n a total o f the 23 r e m a i n i n g o f decision process be con- cases. The Decision Process far, p r o v e d to b e the m o s t c o m p l e x sive. These I n all, 11 m a j o r categories categories, in turn, a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e m o s t were dissected identified and into a number elu- coded in Phase of B e c a u s e o f the simulation-like nature o f Phase II, certain questions and therefore certain categories c o u l d not be further investigated. In total, Phase II, data w e r e collected in eight m a j o r categories. U n e x p e c t e d c o m e s a n d constraints w e r e not identified in P h a s e II data. T h u s , and case types c o m m o n to b o t h phases. In addition, in out- analy- sis a n d c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s i n t w o p h a s e s w a s l i m i t e d categories I. sub-categories. to brief Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 20 David A. Keast mention will be made o f other salient findings in categories and t y p e s in P h a s e I. T h e m a i n interest in this d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s e s o n w h i c h are most evident within specific patterns w h i c h are consistent across A types and, case patterns particularly, phases. n u m b e r o f potential type-specific patterns w e r e identified in either Phase I or Phase II in organizational redevelopment cases. I n all, how- ever, o n l y three patterns s t a n d o u t as r e c u r r i n g across phases in this type. I n b o t h phases respondents identified a lack o f institutional or vision. This was i d e n t i f i e d as a d i l e m m a tional factor in Phase II, a n d w a s case s u m m a r i e s case mission in P h a s e I a n d as a nonra- further supported through analysis in both phases. In Phase II, respondents the importance o f the performance and support o f senior also of identified administrators in the c h a n g e process. T h i s f i n d i n g w a s reinforced in a n u m b e r o f gories in P h a s e I, i n c l u d i n g perceptions o f others, strategies, a n d larly in o u t c o m e s a n d constraints, and further reinforced through o f case s u m m a r i e s in P h a s e I. F i n a l l y , respondents d i d not o f t e n cate- particureview maintain a n d w o r k w i t h i n existing conditions or use existing structures or models as a n a l t e r n a t i v e c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . R a t h e r , t h e y o p t e d f o r m o v i n g forward o n large scale c h a n g e initiatives. N o o f these However, w i t h i n the c o n t e x t o f this study, these three recurring emerge as t h e patterns strongest to c l a i m is b e i n g m a d e f o r t h e siveness organizational candidates exclu- redevelopment for patterns which cases. patterns appear to be h i g h l y characteristic o f this case type. Similar to findings for organizational for personnel cases s h o w e d cases, findings a n u m b e r o f potential type-specific redevelopment patterns in either P h a s e I or P h a s e II data. F e w e r patterns, h o w e v e r , s e e m to exist across phases. I n personnel cases f o u r such patterns w e r e identified. First, the t h e m e o f ambiguity or conflict in information and evidence f r o m eval- uations, the legitimacy o f such evaluations, and adherence to due w a s reinforced in categories in both Phases I and II and further though analysis o f case summaries in both phases. clearly endemic to this case t y p e across phases. This process, reinforced problem was Second, the strategy of c o n s u l t a t i o n , d e f i n e d h e r e as a s p e c i f i c act i n r e s p o n s e t o r e c o g n i t i o n o f a problem, was clearly though respondents, dominant first Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. X X V I - 1 , J 996 in both phases o f data. It a p p e a r s a n d foremost, seek out relevant others to Education as consult Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges w h e n confronted with a personnel dilemma. sonnel ment cases collected here of specific shorter nature term and involving dismissal. solutions to the s e e m e d to be oriented t o w a r d goals. time Third, This frame appears for such 21 consistent the per- achieve- with the quite cases, particularly for those Solutions exhibited what might be called a "practi- cal l o g i c " o f personnel cases w h i c h often consisted o f negotiating a promise and quiet removal from the institution. fact that reactions w e r e expected f r o m out o f the organization, Fourth, a n u m b e r o f constituents in b o t h phases, concern w a s in Phase and the decision. n u m b e r o f r e c u r r e n c e s w e r e n o t e d in all three b u i l d i n g s a n d ties cases o b t a i n e d , the expressed over expected reaction o f the faculty m e m b e r impacted b y the A com- in spite o f facili- a l t h o u g h d e s c r i p t i o n f o r t h i s c a s e t y p e is l i m i t e d I data analysis. Overall, three patterns w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as consistent. F i r s t , in all three cases an a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g d o c u m e n t o r laid the g r o u n d w o r k for the initiative. Thus, to highly plan the identified n e e d had, s o m e point in the past, been discussed before. H o w e v e r , in all cases at the e x i s t i n g d o c u m e n t s e r v e d o n l y as a c o n c e p t u a l s p r i n g b o a r d f r o m w h i c h n e w a n d m o r e relevant initiative w a s adapted. each case an individual, Second, at s o m e p o i n t a in strategically chosen or placed, p l a y e d a crucial r o l e i n l i a i s o n w i t h k e y e x t e r n a l s t a k e h o l d e r s s u c h as g o v e r n m e n t depart- ments or private corporations. This individual was a m e m b e r or chair a special c o m m i t t e e or, in o n e case, s o m e o n e internal to the college nization. way on Third, the success o f each case d e p e n d e d satisfying the mutual interests o f m a j o r in a very stakeholders of orga- essential involved. T h e addressing o f this political a n d e c o n o m i c reality s e e m e d to b e a necessary c o n d i t i o n f o r the success o f each case. V e r y little in the w a y o f consistent e v i d e n c e exists f o r patterns in the unexpected outcomes and constraints categories in Phase I. T h e most consistent f i n d i n g s w e r e in b u i l d i n g s a n d facilities cases. H e r e , all references to u n e x p e c t e d o u t c o m e s referred to v a r i o u s external or stakeholders ring to forms communities i n v o l v e d . M o s t c o m m e n t s w e r e negative in nature of maneuvering and resistance b y various groups realization o f the initiative. Participant responses o n expected referin the constraints to decision m a k i n g s h o w e d s o m e identified constraints occurring slightly m o r e i n s o m e t y p e s t h a n others. T h e b o a r d w a s n a m e d as a c o n s t r a i n t in Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 22 David A. Keast three o u t o f ten p e r s o n n e l cases. I n organizational r e d e v e l o p m e n t resistance to change a n d the resistance o f senior administrators to d o m i n a t e . cases, seemed I n buildings a n d facilities cases, again, the actions o f vari- o u s e x t e r n a l c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as a constraint. Findings cases for unexpected in Phase constraints I, the accuracy are sketchy. I n a total o f o f or lack o f information or eight knowledge s e e m e d to d o m i n a t e in participant responses. N e g a t i v e u n e x p e c t e d reac- tions three from external communities buildings a n d facilities What cases. Other noted exclusively in all cases. is p e r h a p s m o s t across all cases. were i n t e r e s t i n g is t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f time Overall, constraints, was constraints the m o s t m e n t i o n e d constraint in expected and unexpected, occurring all across cases w e r e resistance to change f r o m the internal college c o m m u n i t y , board, a n d the resistance o f senior the administrators. Values T h e identification o f values in Phase I data consisted o f coding a n d clas- s i f y i n g v a l u e s i n 2 3 cases. I n all, 2 9 v a l u e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d i n P h a s e I. P h a s e I I , i n t e r v i e w s w i t h all f o u r r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a g a i n c o d e d f o r In value c h o i c e s . I n this p h a s e , 1 7 v a l u e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d in all. T w o quencies pared within data. levels o f analysis will need to be discussed. First, general o f o c c u r r i n g values across all cases w e r e in both phases. the t w o Finally, Second, major some and more case types mention were will be examined importantly, examined made and recurring frecom- values across b o t h phases of how value of choices in P h a s e I I cases c o m p a r e w i t h v a l u e choices m a d e b y original authors of t h o s e cases in P h a s e I. Table 2 shows findings for general frequencies of values in both phases, r a n k - o r d e r e d f r o m highest to l o w e s t o c c u r r e n c e in cases. I n P h a s e I, the 1 0 m o s t f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g values are displayed. F o r P h a s e II, list s h o w n r e p r e s e n t s the n i n e h i g h e s t o c c u r r i n g v a l u e s . I n P h a s e I, ness ranks highest, while in Phase II, trust ranks second highest. I n Phase I, four values collegiality, and ownership - highest with faculty interests, occur within the top Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 Education fair- fairness empowerment, ten w h i c h occur in the nine values displayed in Phase II. H o w e v e r , the do four out o f not the Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges Table 23 2 Occurences of Values in Phase I and Phase II Rank-Ordered from Highest to Lowest Occurrence in Cases Phase I Values Phase II Total Cases Values Total ( N = 23) Fairness Case Interviews ( N = 9 Shared Decision Institutional Interests 6 9 Fairness 4 8 Making Trust Student 8) 4 Interests Student Interests 6 Shared Decision M a k i n g 3 Faculty Interests 6 Shared 2 Shared Vision 4 Institutional Collegiality 3 Quality of Ownership 3 Respect for 3 Consensus Quality of Education Empowerment six out o f the nine listed in P h a s e Interests 2 Education 2 Persons 2 1 1 five highest occurring values all, Vision I. O f in P h a s e I I are also s h o w n occurring values in Phase the three remaining values, t h r e e c a s e s i n P h a s e I b u t is n o t s h o w n i n T a b l e in P h a s e I. II are a m o n g those trust also o c c u r r e d b y case interview in Phase II. A s can b e noted f r o m these findings, s e c o n d h i g h e s t . T r u s t d i d n o t o c c u r at all i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and shared decision m a k i n g r a n k e d highest f o r organizational r e d e v e l o p m e n t cases P h a s e I w h i l e trust r a n k e d highest in P h a s e II, w i t h shared decision in making redevelopment cases i n P h a s e I. O f t h e t h r e e r e c u r r i n g v a l u e s i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l shared vision - in 2. T a b l e 3 s h o w s findings for recurring values b y case type in P h a s e I m e n t case interviews in Phase II, t w o values - In redevelop- shared decision m a k i n g occurred exclusively in these interviews a n d also and recurred Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 24 David A. Keast Table 3 Recurring Values by Itype in Phase I and Case Interview in Phase II Phase I Phase II O r g R e - D Cases (n = 6) Values No. o f Cases O r g R e - D Case Interviews (n = Values No. of Case Interviews Shared Decision Making 4 Trust 4 Student Interest 3 Shared Decision M a k i n g 3 Ownership 2 Shared Vision 2 Quality of Education 2 Shared Vision 2 Pers Cases (n = 10) Pers Case Interviews (n = 4) Fairness 7 Fairness 4 Institutional Interests 5 Student Interests 3 F a c u l t y Interests 3 Institutional Interests 2 Shared Decision Making 2 Quality of Education 2 Student Interests 2 Repsect for Persons 2 Trust 2 Note: O r g R e - D = organizational Pers = personnel Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 Education redevelopment 4) Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges in Phase I organizational redevelopment views in Phase II, fairness found to be consistent ranked 25 cases. I n p e r s o n n e l case highest in recurrence with Phase I personnel cases. inter- a n d this was In personnel interviews in Phase II, the top three recurring values also ranked case highly in personnel cases in P h a s e I a n d t w o out o f those three, including ness, occurred exclusively in Phase II personnel interviews. T h e ing three values - quality o f education, respect for persons, a n d trust did not recur significantly in Phase I within the personnel Finally, comparison value choices b y of value original authors fair- remain- responses in Phase o f the t w o II interviews with cases in P h a s e I seems s h o w the least extent o f consistency. I n P h a s e I, f r o m a total o f f i v e ues identified in interviews w i t h the original author o f the redevelopment ests - val- organizational inter- o c c u r r e d a m o n g all v a l u e s c o d e d in P h a s e I I o r g a n i z a t i o n a l rede- case interviews. these interviews values - to shared vision and student velopment case, o n l y t w o - type. Shared vision recurred in t w o out o f four in P h a s e II. I n transcripts o f interviews b y the author o f the personnel case, f o u r values w e r e identified. ues in c o m m o n , however, original O f those t w o values also occurred in P h a s e II personnel interviews. four, The two val- w e r e fairness, the highest recurring value personnel cases in b o t h phases, of a n d trust, w h i c h recurred in t w o out for of f o u r personnel case interviews in P h a s e II. Discussion F o u r concerns roughly will be addressed in this section which correspond to the m a j o r research questions stated earlier relating to (a) the types o f decisions m a d e a n d the decision t y p o l o g y , (b) the possibility p a t t e r n s i n d e c i s i o n s a n d v a l u e s as t h e y relate to d e c i s i o n t y p e s , ( c ) the nature o f the decision m a k i n g process, a n d (d) the extent o f similarity value judgments among of in respondents. T h e m a i n p u r p o s e o f the decision t y p o l o g y w a s to p r o v i d e a tual classification s c h e m e for better understanding the decision contexprocess a n d values. T h e a p p r o a c h used w a s to a l l o w values to be classified rela- tive to the types from which they o f decisions originated. Aside in w h i c h from they minor were name immersed changes, the and typology Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 26 David A. Keast was deemed to be generally applicable for respondents and cases r e c e i v e d in this study. H o w e v e r , s o m e qualifications are necessary. In the study the study from decisions which were personnel Ashbaugh used here was o f the staff personnel type. decisions cases, or almost 4 2 % o f these cases w e r e missals. the t y p o l o g y by e m e r g e d as t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r r i n g . o f decisions study, o f school principals Ashbaugh outnumbered and Kasten adapted, (1984), personnel In that study, Likewise, all other types. in the Ten present out o f and the majority o f these w e r e and Kasten found student personnel, cases, at 1 6 % . followed by school-community be classi- relations I n the present study, organizational redevelopment were o f the organizational redevelopment types dis- student personnel decisions to were the second most frequently occurring. A 24 o f cases received w e r e personnel. S e v e n out o f ten staff personnel, the s e c o n d m o s t frequently occurring. T h i r t y - o n e percent o f cases fied were 5 1 % cases S i x out o f 2 4 cases, or 2 5 % type. n u m b e r o f factors m a y account for differences in the f r e q u e n c y o f cases difference collected and categorized, in the professional ranks the m o s t likely o f w h i c h of respondent groups used is in studies. A s h b a u g h a n d K a s t e n ( 1 9 8 4 ) e x a m i n e d the decision m a k i n g values o f school principals, w h e r e a s the respondent g r o u p in the study consisted o f C E O s o f public colleges. A s i d e f r o m the of a the and present occurrence o f staff personnel decisions, these t w o professional roles s e e m to differ s o m e w h a t w i t h respect to the types o f decisions w h i c h respondents faced in their w o r k . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d that n o c l a i m is b e i n g m a d e generalizability to other systems or sectors o f education. here More is n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h i s m o d e l b e y o n d t h e dent g r o u p a n d cases used in this A second concern was the respon- study. identification o f patterns in decision process w h i c h w e r e h i g h l y characteristic o f or specific to decision A s was noted in the previous discerned in t w o section, seven type-specific patterns were cases evaluations a n d a d h e r e n c e to d u e p r o c e s s ; c o n s u l t a t i o n as a d o m i n a n t s t r a t e g y ; over and neutralization reaction types. case types across b o t h phases o f data. Personnel revealed the p r o b l e m o f legitimacy or accuracy o f evidence in promise for research o f the Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 as r e c u r r i n g impacted Education short-term person as an goals; and expected com- concern outcome. Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges Organizational redevelopment vision as a m a i n dilemma; 27 cases revealed a persistent lack o f a problem o f support shared and resistance from senior a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in a n u m b e r o f categories; a n d all r e s p o n d e n t s opt- ing and for large-scale change initiatives. In addition, three buildings facilities cases clearly revealed three factors important in the success of each case, although since n o buildings in a n d facilities cases w e r e u s e d P h a s e II, these findings are limited to Phase I analysis. Part o f the overall conceptual f r a m e w o r k included the adaptation a rational decision model. T h e general approach to investigating making, including the development extent, d e p e n d e n t o n this m o d e l . A analysis here can be making. For compared example, processes, N u t t o f interview number of guides findings was, to of organizational on decision decision making ( 1 9 8 4 ) f o u n d a relatively high percentage o f the use either the ideas o f others and past experience and background, or existing models and already T h i s w a s f o u n d in 7 1 % tried methods, as s o l u t i o n s to were they were or existing not used. documents, Instead, models, respondents for large scale a n d s o m e w h a t risky change initiatives. T h i s in findings may already o f decision cases in N u t t ' s study. F i n d i n g s in this experience, available, reflect a lack o f distinction in defining or history, structures tended to opt inconsistency a problem o p p o s e d to d e f i n i n g a solution. I n this study, a l t h o u g h h i s t o r y a n d as exist- i n g structures p l a y e d a role in definition, this d i d n o t s e e m to b e the in of problems. study d o not reflect similar conclusions. I n m a n y cases in w h i c h background some as a result o f d a t a to other relevant research in a study case solutions. Furthermore, normative v i e w s o f decision m a k i n g tend to emphasize analysis a n d consideration o f possible alternatives, and the outcomes those alternatives (see S i m o n ' s v i e w o f decision m a k i n g , this traditional rational v i e w . Although alternatives and outcomes Frequencies o f alternative codings w e r e rather c o m p a r e d to s o m e other categories and w i d e ranges o f considered with were c o d e d in respondent interviews, neither s e e m e d to p l a y a d o m i n a n t in decision process. of 1 9 7 6 , as a clas- sic e x a m p l e ) . A g a i n , f i n d i n g s in this s t u d y d o n o t a p p e a r consistent role low alter- natives w e r e lacking. I n s o m e cases, alternatives w e r e not considered all. of decision Aside from patterns such as the support or resistance of at senior Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 28 David A. Keast administration to change, expected and unexpected outcomes and straints s h o w e d m u c h less e v i d e n c e o f s y s t e m a t i c p a t t e r n t h a n w a s nally expected. D e c i s i o n m a k e r s s e e m e d to be, in part, conorigi- consequentialists but in n o apparent systemic w a y . Instead, perception o f others, strategies, g o a l s , a n d v a l u e s s e e m e d t o d o m i n a t e . T h i s is s o m e w h a t c o n s i s t e n t another o f Nutt's (1984) important findings. C E O s with in his study w e r e not seen to c o n f o r m at all to n o r m a t i v e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g m o d e l s f o u n d in the literature. L i k e w i s e , it c a n n o t b e i n f e r r e d t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s f o l l o w n o r m a t i v e decision models in a n y consistent in this study way. A s i d e f r o m findings p r e v i o u s l y discussed, results o f analysis o f decision process in this study are in s o m e w a y s that this t y p e o f e x a m i n a t i o n disappointing. is a n a t t e m p t e d a n a l y s i s T o the o f the activity o f respondents, the exact nature o f the decision process to elude us. Although time c o d i n g o f categories frame, the decision process seems to u n f o l d and sub-categories was extent cognitive continues over some by no means strictly sequential. F i n d i n g s here lend support to the n o t i o n that the essential n a t u r e o f decision Therefore,what process number cannot has been described are, at best, respondents in this A making be captured in terms in a linear o f categories some of the components of model. decision o f the decision m a k i n g of study. o f points are w o r t h noting related to the analysis o f val- ues. F i r s t , v a l u e s i n this s t u d y w e r e d i s c e r n e d as " p a r t a n d p a r c e l " o f decision most process itself, fundamental to although the they decision are concepts process. In which essence, values in this study gories, differed except perhaps identifying synonymy. occurred. Thus, were choices subsuming N o some o f coding for other concepts under interest w a s ought to have been m a d e in any cate- meta-analysis but rather w h a t value and values i n t h i s p r o j e c t is d e s c r i p t i v e taken val- others further interpretation o f the content o f the study o f values than prescriptive. value for N o little f r o m m e t h o d s as were answers to the question o f w h y decisions w e r e made. T h e coding o f ues the are seen rather of what choices made. C o d i n g o f values in b o t h phases revealed s o m e similarities a n d differences. general A t least s o m e frequency degree of occurrence Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. X X V I - 1 , J 996 Education o f similarity of values appears across some to exist in all cases in the both Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges phases. O n making, the w h o l e , some II. W h e n and so decision which in Phase interests, shared occur- case interviews students as fairness, on, across interests, such s h o w e d h i g h occurrences in Phase I w e r e also f o u n d to be h i g h l y ring institutional values 29 recurrences were com- p a r e d b y t y p e , p e r s o n n e l cases i n b o t h p h a s e s c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d f a i r n e s s as dominant. T h e three highest recurring values in Phase II w e r e a m o n g top five in Phase I. I n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l shared decision m a k i n g tional redevelopment decision m a k i n g array values, o f values vision, fairness, and Finally, recurred most frequently. interviews, In Phase II trust recurred m o s t and two including finance trust, the cases in P h a s e cases s h o w e d a shared decision I, organiza- often, with second. I n addition, in P h a s e I, buildings a n d cases s h o w e d f e w wide redevelopment shared facilities surprisingly making, shared honesty. it a p p e a r s as t h o u g h r e s p o n d e n t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y m a d e some o f t h e s a m e v a l u e c h o i c e s w h e n r e v i e w i n g the s a m e set o f p r o b l e m s . In Phase in II, it w a s interviews on found one case. within the personnel quality o f education, and shared vision redevelopment made some that a n u m b e r For o f values recurred example, case interviews, a n d respect fairness case interviews. for persons. sistent w i t h findings exclusively institutional Shared within I t is r e a s o n a b l y o f the same value choices w h e n problems. Furthermore, recurred along with also recurred exclusively exclusively interests, decision the making organizational clear that respondents confronted with the s o m e recurrences identified in P h a s e II are w i t h i n the s a m e t y p e in P h a s e I. I n recurred views, and again in Phase in personnel cases, II organizational fairness was shared redevelopment most recurring inter- overall b o t h phases. G i v e n these findings there seems to be a fair extent o f sistency, not only in Phase II, but also for value choices con- organizational r e d e v e l o p m e n t cases, v a l u e s s u c h as s h a r e d d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a n d vision same across in con- phases w i t h i n particular case types. Conclusion M a n y o f the variables described in this s t u d y require further within the larger f r a m e w o r k o f decision types or within other frameworks. Case attributes such as p a r t i c i p a t i o n levels exploration conceptual or decision Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1, 1996 30 David A. Keast strategies s u c h as c o n s u l t a t i o n , a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t , v a l u e c h o i c e s , be studied in relation to a host o f other personal or contextual could variables, a n d this m u s t also include the application o f designs specifically focused o n such problems. Further, n e w thinking needs to be encouraged o n decision making process. N e w and creative approaches need the to be devised to m o r e clearly expose the nature o f administrative decisions higher education. T h e fact that data analysis a n d interpretation d e p e n d e d almost on in responses limitation from o f this one homogeneous study. There professional is, n o doubt, an group is a obvious solely distinct dichotomy b e t w e e n w h a t respondents say they do a n d h o w other stakeholders in organization perceive their actions. Designs s u c h as t h e o n e described here point clearly to the need for additional study o f conflicting tions o f different stakeholders in organizations. The an study o f percep- decisions a n d values o f those w h o assume different roles in higher education insti- tutions, h o w ethical p r o b l e m s are perceived, m a n a g e d , a n d resolved, and h o w p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e s i n f l u e n c e t h e s e f a c t o r s , s h o w s p r o m i s e as a f u t u r e area o f inquiry. study were, Findings at best, for expected and unexpected outcomes sketchy. This same focus on multiple m a y shed additional light o n the consequences o f ethical in choice. It c o u l d also be argued that the study o f values in higher education has e v e n greater i m p l i c a t i o n s . It w a s stated at the outset that v a l u e s assumed to underlie most important administrative this stakeholders decisions. were I f this is t r u e , t h e n it is i n e v i t a b l e t h a t v a l u e s a n d v a l u e c o n f l i c t s p e r m e a t e m o s t if n o t all aspects o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e practice in h i g h e r education. T h i s that m o s t finance, areas program and issues in higher management, human education resources, including and planned and most administrative processes including policy, planning, means leadership, change, implemen- tation, a n d assessment, will be enriched through the study o f values understood m o r e clearly f r o m a values-oriented perspective. Canadian Journal of Higher Vol. XXVI-1, J 996 Education ty and Values in the Decision Making of CEOs in Public Colleges 31 References Ashbaugh, C., & Kasten, K. 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