The Canadian Journal of Higher Education La revue canadienne d'enseignement supérieur Volume XXVI-1,1996 The Scholarship of Teaching: A Canadian Perspective with Examples JOE CUNSOLO, MEI-FEI ELRICK, ALEX MIDDLETON University of Guelph DALE ROY McMaster University Abstract Scholarship is t h e heart Carnegie report (Boyer, o f scholarship to include as d i s c o v e r y , Although this thereby of work. Recognizing 1990) urges universities to extend the application, making inclusive academic view teaching, and it p o s s i b l e t o v a l u e o f scholarship from the activities would scholarship foster the examples be presently identified with development given which o f teaching? of teaching teaching, These scholarship, and discussed. well work. questions scholarship teaching. enhance practices, questions are H o w and addressed, o f institutional w h i c h s u p p o r t it. T h e e n h a n c e m e n t o f t e a c h i n g , as it m e e t s c r i t e r i a , is as all a c a d e m i c holds promise, comprise the definition integration, r e m a i n concerning the scholarship o f teaching a n d h o w such differs this policies scholarship's 36 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Résumé L e s activités savantes sont au coeur d u travail universitaire. Conscient cette réalité, le r a p p o r t C a r n e g i e (Boyer, 1990) de incite les u n i v e r s i t é s définir l'activité savante de f a ç o n à y inclure la pratique de à l'enseignement, s o n i n t é g r a t i o n et ses d é c o u v e r t e s - c e q u i p e r m e t t r a i t d e v a l o r i s e r t o u t e s les facettes du l'activité travail savante universitaire. Bien soit prometteuse, que cette définition il f a u t se p o s e r de élargie nombreuses q u e s t i o n s s u r " l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t c o m m e activité s a v a n t e " et sur la f a ç o n cette activité savante présentement savante constitué. les l'enseignement? Comment peut-on incorporer la notion et d a n s q u e l l e m e s u r e méthodes Cet dont se d i s t i n g u e des a c t i v i t é s d o n t l ' e n s e i g n e m e n t à l'enseignement, perfectionner de pédagogiques article se p e n c h e n o n d'activité viendrait-elle et favoriser seulement est à la fois l'essor sur ces de questions, m a i s aussi sur des e x e m p l e s de l'enseignement c o m m e activité savante sur des politiques institutionnelles qui en font la p r o m o t i o n . E n f i n , discute d u perfectionnement de l'enseignement celui-ci r é p o n d a u x n o r m e s de ce qu'est l'activité a u f u r et à m e s u r e of • Warren Bennis tent • calls f o r r e f o r m in u n d e r g r a d u a t e education b e c o m e ever m o r e ( A A C , 1985; Bok, 1992; Smith, 1991), vision o f scholarship holds great promise. In que savante. [We must] ". . . know when an idea . . . extends the definition the university and makes it more viable. " A s the argument Scholarship for insisa new Reconsidered, B o y e r ( 1 9 9 0 ) urges the university to include application, integration, teaching, as w e l l "...knowledge practice, as d i s c o v e r y , i n its d e f i n i t i o n o f s c h o l a r s h i p is a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h and through teaching" research, (p. 13). through synthesis, Scholarship's and research rewarded. means knowledge N o w the o v e r w h e l m i n g that academics who through centrality in find their contributions few rewards (Fairweather, receive 1993; Skolnik & Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 emphasis w i s h to apply, teach, on or 1984). the be discipline integrate little c o l l e g i a l a p p r o v a l Rowan, and because u n i v e r s i t y , h e r e a s o n s , w i l l m a k e it p o s s i b l e f o r all a c a d e m i c w o r k t o valued et l'article and The Scholarship of Teaching There are further arises f r o m the n e w advantages to reconsidering scholarship opportunities to explore multiple w a y s of which knowing: abstract-concrete and reflective-active (Rice, 1992). T h e creative g e n e r a t e d as a c a d e m i c s f r o m these m a n y examine knowledge 37 tension perspec- tives enables t h e m to fully explore their disciplines. A s academics and academic administrators examine B o y e r ' s (1990) report, h o w e v e r , questions surface. W h a t does he actually m e a n w h e n talks o f the scholarship o f teaching? D o e s h e a s s u m e all t e a c h i n g ties are a f o r m o f scholarship? Then will teaching become he activi- scholarship s i m p l y b y c a l l i n g it s c h o l a r s h i p ? D o e s h e a s s u m e n e w w o r d s f o r describ- i n g t e a c h i n g w i l l m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o r e c o g n i z e a n d r e w a r d it? O r i f , as C e r b i n ( 1 9 9 3 ) a r g u e s , a l l t e a c h i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n is n o t scholarship, w h a t teaching constitutes scholarly w o r k ? A l l faculty bers k n o w engaged they in the teach. their colleagues w h o the scholarship They wonder scholarship more they would Would they do if they teach m o r e than teach and also conduct discipline research? B u t o f teaching t h e r e is a s c h o l a r l y what o f teaching.1 mem- is e q u a t e d w i t h component quantity, if assume I f so, that w o u l d mean T h e n t h e r e is t h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w t h e s c h o l a r s h i p o f t e a c h i n g might silence h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ' s critics. B o k ( 1 9 9 2 ) , for e x a m p l e , thinks teach- those teaching m o r e could be in all t e a c h i n g ? does that rewarded. i n g is " . . . o n e o f t h e f e w h u m a n a c t i v i t i e s t h a t d o e s n o t g e t better f r o m one generation to the n e x t " (p. W e will Scholarship consider Reconsidered tal questions: W h a t H o w would teaching the and the various (Boyer, 18). arguments scholarship and queries 1990) b y addressing three is s c h o l a r s h i p ? W h a t To raised lead expand on to the in fundamen- is t h e s c h o l a r s h i p o f of teaching its a d v a n c e m e n t ? demonstrably teaching? development the responses to of these questions w e will give C a n a d i a n examples o f the scholarship o f teaching and institutional policies which support scholarly diversity. i n s t a n c e s are critical b e c a u s e , as S c h ò n ( 1 9 9 0 ) n o t e s , w i t h o u t it is d i f f i c u l t t o k n o w w h a t s o m e o n e These examples means. Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 38 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Scholarship: Criteria and Characteristics If teaching is t o b e scholarly, it m u s t meet the same standards scholarship. L y n t o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) suggests scholarship has three and as all characteristics criteria: 1. S c h o l a r s h i p is a r e a s o n e d a n d r e f l e c t i v e p r o c e s s i n w h i c h s c h o l a r m a k e s a n u m b e r o f d e l i b e r a t e c h o i c e s as to the objectives a n d m e t h o d s f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e m , a d a p t i n g t h e s e as t h e p r o c e s s evolves. 2. T h e scholar a l w a y s strives to acquire n e w , g e n e r a l i z e d edge f r o m the specific knowl- activity. 3. S c h o l a r s h i p is c o m m u n i c a t e d t o o t h e r s . H e t h i n k s t h e "...indi- v i d u a l has an obligation to share such n e w l y acquired insights with colleagues." B r a x t o n ( 1 9 9 1 ) b e l i e v e s s c h o l a r s h i p is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y no knowledge claim or research findings should be skepticism accepted - without e m p i r i c a l o r logical criteria. H e , too, thinks scholarship's results b e l o n g to the a c a d e m i c c o m m u n i t y and, hence, peers m u s t be aware o f the Time spending time in the laboratory, archives, or the scholarship o f discovery, academics field characteristics pretation, which mark a n d critical appraisal. work, i.e., colleagues w h o make critical (Hutchings, comments 1994). N o w , argue scholarly w o r k The content, spent are evidence, inter- last requires that peers r e v i e w in the discipline a n d objectives, and their student ratings are the m o s t students produces that t i m e are asked relied questionnaires i f t h e i n s t r u c t o r is accessible outside class, fair, a n d enthusiastic. N o n e the can attainment commonly u p o n a n d s t a n d a r d m e t h o d u s e d to assess teaching. O n the u s e d f o r this p u r p o s e , that 2 are k n o w l e d g e a b l e on automatically cannot teaching equates w i t h scholarship in teaching. The findings. is n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e a b o v e c r i t e r i a . J u s t as n o o n e a r g u e s organized, o f those questions a r e d e s i g n e d t o r e v e a l i f t e a c h i n g is s c h o l a r l y . Shulman (1993) clearly thinks teaching m u s t be reconnected to disciplines and peers must review teaching. A s w i t h research, need to create hard evidence o f their teaching Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 scholarship. the academics H e argues, The Scholarship " W e of Teaching 39 do not j u d g e the quality o f scholarship o n a casual c o m m e n t in the hall. W e say, ' Y o u m u s t write that u p . ' W e made go about making visi- b l e t h e i n v i s i b l e . . . . I f p e d a g o g y is i m p o r t a n t t h e n w e w i l l n e e d t o d o s a m e . " (p. the 7). Parallels in Research and Teaching T h e idea M c E w a n of teaching & Bull, as a scholarly pursuit is n o t new. D e w e y 1 9 9 1 ) early c l a i m e d that m a t u r e reflection o n shares the s a m e g e n e r a l features as the scientific m e t h o d b e c a u s e , are b o t h acts o f i n q u i r y that lead o u t into a n e x p a n d i n g w o r l d o f m a t t e r " (p. A t 11th Annual in H i g h e r Conference Education o f the ( S T L H E ) , e x a m i n e d the parallels between Society Hansen approaching for Teaching and Roberts is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e parallels elaborated evidence, above reveal that this m o d e l of and makes new teaching evidence, ideas accessible to colleagues s t u d e n t s . W h e n t h i s o c c u r s , t e a c h i n g is a v a i l a b l e f o r c r i t i q u e a n d and revision. vitality. A l t h o u g h the m o d e l clearly s h o w s the parallels in scholarly academics. a modifications, It, thus, has the collegial n u r t u r i n g w h i c h m a i n t a i n s a c a d e m i c and teaching, and 1. m e e t s s c h o l a r s h i p ' s c r i t e r i a ; t h e i n d i v i d u a l is s k e p t i c a l , g a t h e r s interprets and (1991) a typical "research" typical "teaching" problem. Their basic m o d e l , with some The "They subject 331). the Learning (in teaching research it d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e v i s i o n o f t e a c h i n g h e l d b y most Geis and Smith (1979) find faculty members think o f teach- i n g as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f c o n t e n t k n o w l e d g e a n d e n t h u s i a s m . W h e n Smith ( 1 9 9 5 ) reminds us that the w a y w e f r a m e a p r o b l e m influences h o w s o l v e it, it is r e a s o n a b l e t h a t f a c u l t y a s s u m e t e a c h i n g i m p r o v e s b y i n g m o r e content not b y considering strategies for m a k i n g the m o r e accessible to students ( G a f f , we learn- discipline 1975). The Scholarship of Teaching: A Force Field Analysis W h i l e all a c a d e m i c s m u s t s h o w e v i d e n c e o f c o n t i n u i n g scholarship, m a y not w i s h to conduct traditional discipline-based research. choosing other scholarly pursuits all Individuals often feel m a r g i n a l i z e d because institutions h a v e e m b r a c e d B o y e r ' s ( 1 9 9 0 ) m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e vision few of Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 40 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Table 1 Parallels Between Approaching "Teaching" Problem Typical "Research" and a Typical R E S E A R C H T E A C H I N G Background • Scholarship knowledge Background base • • identification o f • d e v e l o p m e n t o f a strategy "problem" knowledge • identification o f • development o f a strategy (hypothesis) • experimental Scholarship (basic design • base "problem" plan) teaching strategy Implementation Implementation • • the "experiment" the "teaching" Effectiveness Effectiveness depends depends on: • research • organizational • observational • c o m m i t m e n t to • attitude to • interaction with N e w • research research colleagues attitude to • interaction with results • plan further "research" for Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 colleagues • plan further • criticism) results for greater to skills Scholarship evaluate insight colleagues skills teaching • evaluate m a k e ideas available expertise (collaboration and N e w • • c o m m i t m e n t to teaching criticism) Scholarship clearer observational • • skills organizational • skills research • expertise (collaboration and on: "strategies" effectiveness m a k e ideas available colleagues to The Scholarship scholarship. embracing In an attempt to clarify the extended v i e w the reasons o f scholarship, of Teaching the academy the authors what Society for Teaching forces w o r k for, and Learning and against, in H i g h e r the f o l l o w i n g goal: Table field not partici- Conference Education, 1992) "Enhancing recognition and reward for scholarship in teaching within our c o m m u n i t y . " T h e i r responses in a force is asked p a n t s at a w o r k s h o p o n t h e S c h o l a r s h i p o f T e a c h i n g ( A n n u a l o f the 41 the university analysis f o r m a t are g i v e n in 2. M a n y o f t h e s a m e f o r c e s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as w o r k i n g f o r a n d a g a i n s t t h e goal. W e suggest this indicates the participants' ambivalence to change. Factors w h i c h influence the seeming p a r a d o x will be addressed below. Making Changes Bergquist increase and Barber as p o s i t i v e (1977) forces find the negative become more forces acting o n a insistent. r e q u i r e s l e s s e n e r g y a n d is m o r e e f f e c t i v e t o r e m o v e o r r e d u c e t h e w o r k i n g against the goal than p u s h harder a n d harder to reach the Perhaps the clearly places first disciplinary 1979; Neatby, university's view o f teaching scholarship requires Only which must remove when Rowen, forces accepting shift. 1993; Jaspers, it as a l e g i t i m a t e Shulman (1993) like research, must be public. the form knows of this Consequently, accessible to the collegial and the collegial reviews which 1984). Changing the forces w h i c h maintain teaching's teaching becomes refine ideas, and a m a j o r cultural a n d suggests that teaching, academics research first ( F a i r w e a t h e r , 1982; Skolnik & it goal. forces to consider are tied to the value system 1960; Ladd, goal Consequently, solitude. conversations which judge s h a r p e n t h e m , w i l l t e a c h i n g b e r e c o g n i z e d as s e r i o u s a c a d e m i c and further work. P l a c i n g the s a m e forces o n b o t h sides o f the goal also m a y reveal lack o f trust. A c a d e m i c for years that they administrators, value teaching for example, and that have been it is t a k e n a saying seriously by P r o m o t i o n a n d T e n u r e C o m m i t t e e s . Y e t , the data clearly s h o w that teachi n g is n o t as w e l l r e w a r d e d as r e s e a r c h ( F a i r w e a t h e r , templating reviewed this reality, because we faculty must in remember general most 1993). W h e n teaching are reluctant to is n o t engage in conpeer this Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 42 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Table 2 Forces Working For and Against the Goal Forces Working FOR the Goal « — • • • • • • • • • • • • Instructional development units, teaching services Faculty energy/ideas/creativity Activities of The Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education Professional Associations The move to teaching dossiers (to document teaching) Independent evaluation/peer review of teaching Boyer's Report Low faculty morale Synergism between teaching and research Public pressure University mission/goal statements Funding (tied to public pressure) Support from the private sector • Students • Parents • Deans and Vice-Presidents who are teachers • Faculty Associations fighting for teaching faculty • The rise of feminism and feminist pedagogy Forces Working AGAINST the Goal • • • • • • The actions of Management (lip service but nothing else) Boards of Governors Rewards primarily for discipline research Lack of experience assessing the scholarship of teaching The reluctance of faculty to open up their classrooms to colleagues Graduate schools that provide no preparation for teaching Shortage of journals for exchanges about teaching • Myths about teaching • The backlash against the rise of feminism • The attitudes and influence of senior faculty • The attitudes of department heads/chairs • The culture of universities • The politics of universities • Lack of portability of teaching • Inertia Competitiveness • Faculty unions • Professional Associations • Low faculty morale Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 The Scholarship of Teaching 43 p r o c e s s . U n t i l it is, a c a d e m i c s a n d a c a d e m i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w i l l b e t o o f f e r it t h e s a m e s t a t u r e a n d r e w a r d s as d i s c i p l i n a r y loath research. W h a t w o u l d constitute peer r e v i e w o f teaching? U s u a l l y w h e n acade- mics think o f reviewing teaching, they think o f classroom visitations by the chair. research b y But, academics observing do not think they have reviewed the individual in his/her lab, often a or archive, peer's field. H e n c e , c o m i n g into the classroom cannot constitute peer review. A d d e d the issues s u r r o u n d i n g c l a s s r o o m visits are the findings w h i c h s h o w leagues are so generous in their ratings o f classroom teaching that observations are not a reliable source o f evidence ( M a r c h , coltheir 1987). Peers also think they are r e v i e w i n g teaching w h e n they e x a m i n e assess the students' c o m m e n t s peer review. teaching. Peers a n d ratings. This, too, does not need to r e v i e w Ideas must be shaped, b e i n g r e v i e w e d b y peers. the individuals' sharpened, thinking Shulman and constitute about and argued logically I t is f o r t h e s e r e a s o n s their before (1993) states, "...artifacts o f teaching m u s t be created a n d preserved so that they can j u d g e d b y c o m m u n i t i e s o f peers b e y o n d the office next d o o r " (p. A n artifact, thus, c o u l d b e c r e a t e d as the i n d i v i d u a l faculty must become aware o f the journals devoted members are unfamiliar w i t h the teaching the accomplish to t e a c h i n g a n d the k i n d s o f articles such j o u r n a l s accept. N o w be 7). publishes outcomes o f ideas generated through reflective teaching. T o this, to university most faculty literature a n d k n o w little of h o w t o p u b l i s h i n it. T o assist t h e m , w e p r o v i d e a p a r t i a l list o f j o u r n a l s , b o t h general a n d specific ( A p p e n d i x A ) . F a c u l t y also w i l l w a n t to meetings to present and discuss their ideas. W e include a selection colloquia w h e r e results can b e presented ( A p p e n d i x Another artifact o f teaching is t h e t e a c h i n g 1 9 8 0 ) , w h i c h is g r a d u a l l y b e i n g a d o p t e d i n m a n y attend B). dossier (Shore Canadian et its p o l i c y o n T e n u r e , P r o m o t i o n a n d T i m e a n d P e r f o r m a n c e S t e p (University of Guelph, regular evaluation b y the D e p a r t m e n t 1995). It n o w of Increase states, " P a r t o f Tenure and Promotion al., universities. F o r e x a m p l e , recently the U n i v e r s i t y o f G u e l p h revised article 9 . 0 4 (iv) Considerations, of the Committee will be based o n a teaching dossier w h i c h provides a vehicle for faculty to report teaching accomplishments." The policy statement expands m i n i m a l requirements o f the dossier b y stating, " T h i s dossier will on the include Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 44 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy a teaching statement in w h i c h the faculty m e m b e r provides a contextual commentary McMaster University on teaching a new experiences policy (February and 9, objectives." 1994) calls A t for assessment t e a c h i n g b y p e e r s a n d students. T h e p o l i c y states that " . . . i n f o r m a t i o n material should be organized into a 'teaching portfolio'...this of and portfolio s h o u l d c o n t a i n w h a t e v e r i n f o r m a t i o n is f e l t t o b e r e l e v a n t t o a r e v i e w the instructor's teaching a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s . . . . " (p. Besides indications the introduction that the culture o f the teaching o f teaching dossier, is c h a n g i n g . there are other Universities offering courses to graduate students preparing t h e m for a future ing role. most Likewise, campuses, tions about programs increase for n e w awareness faculty and members, encourage of 2). now collegial are teach- found on conversa- teaching. Canadian Examples of The Scholarship of Teaching B o y e r ' s ( 1 9 9 0 ) report lacks the specific examples o f scholarship in teachi n g w h i c h S c h o n ( 1 9 9 0 ) c l a i m s are essential f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e o f faculty m e m b e r s w h o have received Canada's 3 M work Teaching F e l l o w s h i p p r o v i d e useful illustrations o f the scholarship o f teaching. award, sponsored by for Teaching whose 3 M Canada and Learning teaching Inc. in H i g h e r is e x e m p l a r y and administered b y Education, and w h o display The is a w a r d e d t o educational Society faculty leadership. T h e criteria f o r the a w a r d are those u s e d to assess scholarship: the member faculty questions, m a k e s interpretations based o n evidence, draws clusions w h i c h she or he m a k e s available to colleagues for their con- critical assessment. T h e a w a r d has been presented annually for the past ten indicating that scholarly teaching exists a n d can b e The years identified. C l e a r l y , a n e x h a u s t i v e list o f t h e 3 M F e l l o w s c o n t r i b u t i o n s is b e y o n d the scope o f this paper. H o w e v e r , the f o l l o w i n g selection o f examples p r o v i d e d to indicate h o w the w o r k o f the 3 M F e l l o w s extends the o f scholarship in teaching. 1. R e s e a r c h o n T e a c h i n g N e a r l y 5 0 % o f 3 M F e l l o w s conduct research and publish reviewed articles on teaching Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 in higher education. is vision peer Topics The Scholarship of Teaching include: problem-based learning, problem-solving, c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills, i n d i v i d u a l i z e d P(roblera) S(olving) N(ews) teaching instruction. O n e in ten write/edit/publish newsletters on higher e.g., 45 is o n e w i t h a n education, international circulation. O t h e r newsletters circulate primarily w i t h i n an institution. A q u a r t e r o f t h e 3 M F e l l o w s p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l f i n d i n g s at n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e s . S o m e t y p i c a l titles include: • " F a c u l t y D e v e l o p m e n t in Teaching: S o m e Perspectives, and Blueprints," S T L H E • "Improving Teaching b y Reflecting on Practice," (United • Experiences, (Canada). P O D States). " T h e N o r t h A m e r i c a n A p p r o a c h to Veterinary Education," University of Ghent Medical (Belgium). I n addition, the 3 M F e l l o w s are i n v o l v e d in organizing ferences or s y m p o s i a o n p e d a g o g y in their con- discipline. 2. Curriculum Development 3 M F e l l o w s talk with colleagues about curricular questions committees These and during workshops, avenues rounds enable teaching them (Weimer, seminars, and to break the silence w h i c h 1987; Gaff, 1975). Often Across the Curriculum, Women's Curriculum, Computers sur- the cussions result in significant curricular changes, e.g., Thinking on symposia. dis- Critical Across the Studies. 3. Course Materials The 3 M Fellows write textbooks, course manuals, develop v i d e o s , a n d create software. T h e h i g h quality o f this w o r k determined by peers) means that these resources adopted b y other departments and are (as often institutions. 4. Faculty Development Nearly wide all o f the 3 M Fellows offer leadership in campus- faculty development programs by conducting collegial Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 46 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy consultations, o w n offering institutions, abroad - United and Australia, workshops at for institutions Germany, colleagues across Malaysia, at their Canada and China, and pivotal the Kingdom. roles 5. Institutional Development Nearly one-third o f the 3 M Fellows play c h a n g i n g the culture o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g at their tions by developing documents on topics like "Teaching Writing" (York University), "The Evaluation of Teaching Courses" (University (University not produce which of Ottawa), of Guelph). change, and "Learning Realizing the 3 M Fellows reports and innovations seminars, and with alone create pilot viability colleagues and Objectives" that d o c u m e n t s demonstrate the innovation's in institu- projects and discuss in open do the meetings, workshops. 6. Teaching Students The 3 M Fellows continually question what they teach (1991) h o w they teach. F o r example, M c M a s t e r ' s D o n W o o d s says, " I spent the first 15 years o f m y and life as a t e a c h e r trying to s h o w students h o w I solve problems a n d hoped, like having s o m e o n e w a t c h a violinist p e r f o r m , that the 'watchers' would become skilled problem violinists). explicitly see h o w T h e y solvers don't.... one particular W e skill, (or in the analogy, found have give the students to skilled identify a chance to t h e y d o it, o f f e r a m o d e l o f h o w t h e skills s h o u l d be done and then give them a chance - w e to i m p r o v e " (p. with immediate feedback 8). T h e University of Western Ontario's Madeline Lennon (1993) her classes g r e w have learned from about 65 to 330 some very students. helpful found She says, " O v e r the years, techniques that allow I me to actively address the frustrations I experience a r o u n d the issue o f h o w to i n v o l v e students m o r e effectively in the learning process" (p. Guelph's introductory Sandy course Middleton (1994) in Z o o l o g y because Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 has completely 5). revamped he realized that the an classical The Scholarship of Teaching 47 a p p r o a c h w i t h its e m p h a s i s o n t a x o n o m y a n d a n a t o m y d i d n o t r e f l e c t t h e d y n a m i c , c o n c e p t u a l n a t u r e o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e . T h e c o u r s e , i n its n e w mat, focuses on Zoology as a b r a n c h o f s c i e n c e in w h i c h the for- concepts a n d m e t h o d s o f investigation are g i v e n p r o m i n e n c e . Q u e s t i o n s are raised to w h i c h the students m u s t find the a n s w e r either through devising testing hypotheses, or through observation and synthesis. Creative ing replaces rote and think- learning. A Policy Which Supports Diversity in Scholarship A l t h o u g h external Fellowships, awards recognize for teaching and celebrate tions themselves must value, encourage, T h e University encourages of Guelph 3 has scholarship, teaching the the and reward scholarly a policy, scholarly diversity amongst like excellence, developed in o n e o f its k i n d , teaching. 1983, its f a c u l t y . A l t h o u g h is n o t p e r f e c t , a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t t h e o n l y 3 M institu- which the policy it is o n e with w h i c h the authors are familiar. The policy, Article (University of Guelph, "...the University 19, was revised in the Special P l a n should give particular emphasis accommodate a large diversity Career paths to discipline-based research, or similar activities.... Each r a n k s a n d n o p a t h is t o b e d e e m e d a s i n f e r i o r t o a n y document further teaching/education states, component "...every faculty The may must academic other." member o f responsibility." of educa- career path leave o p e n the possibility o f p r o m o t i o n to the highest The 4 1 9 9 3 ) . It states: acceptable paths for career development.... tion, extension, Agreement must policy have a definitely s t a t e s t h a t , w h e n t e a c h i n g is t h e c a r e e r e m p h a s i s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l is: "...expected to engage related to education. in scholarly Such activity activity which should have impact i n f l u e n c e b e y o n d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G u e l p h . T h a t is, instruction, b y itself, o n l y partially fulfills the o f m e m b e r w h o s e teaching/education" (pp. 27-28). Diversity a faculty career path may "The and classroom responsibilities emphasizes 5 is f u r t h e r l e g i t i m i z e d b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f G u e l p h ' s o f research: be t e r m r e s e a r c h as h e r e u s e d m e a n s definition the search for new Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 48 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy k n o w l e d g e , the conscious effort to a d d directly to the store o f knowledge or to alter w a y s is in w h i c h we see, known" (University of Guelph, To path. date T h e few faculty have University appraise, 1989, p. or apply chosen to e m p h a s i z e of Guelph's what already A-l). experience the teaching reveals, things, the i m p o r t a n c e o f language. F a c u l t y tend to interpret the m e n t to engage in " a scholarly activity w h i c h m a y tion" to m e a n that w o u l d conducting mean research switching they other require- be related to in the field o f education. disciplines, career among refrain f r o m educa- Thinking choosing the teaching career path. T h e y also are a p p r e h e n s i v e o v e r the designation of the teaching In the eyes of m a n y , t h a t d e s i g n a t i o n is s e e n as b e i n g a s e c o n d a r y c h o i c e a n d , h e n c e , of career path as t h e " a l t e r n a t e career path." lesser v a l u e t h a n the traditional research path. Guelph's experience does reveal that a university-wide policy with f l e x i b l e c a r e e r o p t i o n s is a n e c e s s a r y , b u t n o t s u f f i c i e n t , c o n d i t i o n t o idate scholarly diversity. Because career decisions are m a d e departmental level, policies like Article departmental first 19 also m u s t b e c o m e val- at the policy. Policies, once in place, m u s t be rigorously implemented. cal mass o f faculty choose to emphasize the scholarship a part A s of a criti- teaching, a n d are r e c o g n i z e d for their w o r k , universities can be assured their cies are effective. It w o u l d a p p e a r f r o m the current situation that work of polimuch remains. How will the scholarship of teaching foster better education? If scholarly questions (1987) stage teaching and make reminds their findings us, university as m e d i c i n e guided by is t o d e v e l o p , was must address accessible to colleagues. teaching at the t u r n case k n o w l e d g e academics is at t h e o f the developed century through same when practice. A s teaching Medley developmental doctors were Happily most patients i m p r o v e d so the doctors c a m e to trust their treatments. A c a d e m i c s d e v e l o p case k n o w l e d g e as t h e y teach. H a p p i l y m o s t dents learn. Still, i f results w e r e studied m o r e closely a n d n e w w a y s stuwere s o u g h t t o h e l p s t u d e n t s l e a r n , t e a c h i n g c o u l d b e c o m e m o r e e f f e c t i v e . I t is n o t e n o u g h to l e a v e this w o r k to those in the Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 field o f education because 49 The Scholarship of Teaching asking questions specific about teaching requires subject matter" ( A A C , 1985, "...deep, p. 2). A s expert k n o w l e d g e academics open their teaching reflections to collegial discussion (and to the refinements follow), their understanding of teaching will i m p r o v e , a n d the universities' critics w i l l b e deepen, of which teaching will silenced. Conclusions I f t e a c h i n g is t o b e v a l u e d , mic work. it m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d l e g i t i m a t e T h e s c h o l a r s h i p o f t e a c h i n g , b e c a u s e it e x t e n d s t h e acade- definition o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d m a k e s it m o r e v i a b l e , m e e t s B e n n i s ' s ( 1 9 7 0 ) ria for effective Extending shift possible, change. the definition it h a s the o f scholarship added advantage not only makes of offering all a The Right Stuff (Woolf, engineers 1 9 7 9 ) academics like to push the envelope. r e m i n d i n g us that, like an envelope, k n o w l e d g e has f o u r sides, tion, integration, possibilities discovery, for extending cultural academics greater k n o w l e d g e o f their disciplines. L i k e the astronauts a n d in crite- and teaching, knowledge. Boyer This more (1990) B y applica- suggests encompassing fresh vision o f k n o w l e d g e gives academics opportunities to understand h o w their disc i p l i n e s are t a u g h t , a p p l i e d , i n t e g r a t e d , as w e l l as d i s c o v e r e d . T h e s e tiple w a y s o f k n o w i n g create fresh a p p r o a c h e s for a c a d e m i c s to a n d m o r e deeply engage their mul- explore disciplines.^ References American Association for Higher Education. (1992, April 5-8). Forum on Exemplary Teaching. Chicago, IL. Association of American Colleges. (1985). Integrity in the college curriculum: A report to the academic community. Washington, DC. Bennis, W. (1970). Who sank the yellow submarine? In W. Bennis, K. Benne, R. Chin, & K. Corey (Eds.), The planning of change (pp. 219-227). New York, NY: Holt Reinhart and Winston. Bergquist, W.H., & Barber, N. (1977). Building a project. In W. Bergquist, S. Phillips, & G. Quehl (Eds.), A handbook for faculty development, Vol. 2 (p. 256). Washington, DC: Council for the Advancement of Small Colleges. Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 50 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Bok, D. (1992). Reclaiming the public trust. Change, 24(4), 13-19. Braxton, J. (1991). The influence of graduate department quality on the sanctioning of scientific misconduct. Journal of Higher Education, 62(1), 87-108. Boyer, E. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Cashin, W., & Clegg, V. (1994). Periodicals related to college teaching. Idea Paper, No. 28. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University. Cerbin, W. (1993). Fostering a culture of teaching as scholarship. The Teaching Professor, 1(2). Fairweather, J. (1993). Teaching, research, and faculty rewards. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. Gaff. J. (1975). Toward faculty renewal. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Geis, G., & Smith, R. (1979). Professors' perceptions of teaching and learning: Implications for faculty development. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Hansen, P., & Roberts, K.B. (1991). Understanding scholarship: Expanding its meaning and practice in teaching. Paper presented at the 11th Annual Conference on Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Halifax, NS. Hutchings, P. (1994). Peer review of teaching. AAHE Bulletin, 47(3), 3-7. Jaspers, K. (1960). The idea of the university. London, GB: Peter Owen. Ladd, E.C. Jr. (1979). The work experience of American college professors: Some data on an argument. Current Issues in Higher Education, 2, 3-12. Lennon, M. (1993). Delights of teaching and the large class. Teaching Forum, 44. University of Guelph, Guelph, ON. Lynton, E. (1993). Rethinking what it means to be a scholar: Where do we go from here? 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The gospel of research: The transformation of English-Canadian universities. Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 20(4), 275-284. Rice, E. (1992). Toward a broader conception of scholarship: The American context. In T. Whiston, & R. Geiger (Eds.), Research and Higher Education: The United Kingdom and the United States (pp. 117-129). Buckingham, GB: The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press. Schon, D. (1990). Knowing, scholarship, and faculty rewards: The new American scholar in theory and practice. Talk given at AAHE, San Francisco, CA. Shore, B.M., Foster, S . F , Knapper, C.K., Nadeau, G.G., Neill, N., & Sim, S.W. (1980). The teaching dossier: A guide to its preparation and use. Canadian Association of University Teachers, Ottawa, ON. Shulman, L. (1993). Teaching as community property. Change, 25(6), 6-7. Skolnik, M., & Rowan, N. (1984). Please sir, I want some more. Toronto, ON: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Press. Smith, R. (1995). Reflecting critically on our efforts to improve instruction. In To improve the academy (in press). Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press Inc. Smith, S. (1991). Commission of inquiry on Canadian university education. Ottawa, ON: Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. University of Guelph. (1989 rev.). Research policies handbook (Section A). Guelph, ON. University of Guelph. (1993). Special plan agreement. Faculty handbook, (pp. 28-29). Guelph, ON. University of Guelph. (1995). Policy with respect to information for tenure, promotion and TSPI considerations (Section IX, Item 9.04). Guelph, ON Weimer, M. (1987). Conversing with a colleague. The Teaching Professor, 1(5), 1-2. Woolf, T. (1979). The right stuff. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc. Woods, D. (1991). Ten ideas about managing the learning environment. Teaching Forum, 41, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON. Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 52 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Appendix A Where to publish the Scholarship of Teaching: A Partial List General Journals in Higher Education Academe (American Association of University Professors) Canadian Journal of Higher Education Change Magazine of Higher Learning (AAHE) Chronicle of Higher Education (weekly) Community College College Review Teaching Educational Record HERDSA (Higher Education Research and D e v e l o p m e n t Society o f Australasia) News Higher Education Higher Education Research and Journal of Higher Education Development Liberal Education (Association of American Colleges Bulletin) New Directions for Teaching and Learning Research in Higher Education Review of Higher Education The Times Higher Education Supplement The Teaching Professor To Improve the Academy Discipline Specific Agriculture Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Biology American Biology Teacher Journal of Biological Education Business Journal of Business Education Chemistry Education in Chemistry Journal of Chemical Biochemical Education Education Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 Education The Scholarship of Teaching 53 Computer Science SIGCSE Education Economics Journal of Economic Engineering Education Chemical Engineering Education American Society of Engineering Education English ADE Bulletin College Composition and Communication College English Freshman English News JETT: Journal of English Teaching Techniques Research in the Teaching of English English as a Second Language Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages TESL Talk Geography Journal of Geography History History Teaching Languages and Literatures and Linguistics ADFL Bulletin Foreign Language Annals IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Language Learning Teaching Language Through Teaching Literature Law Journal of Legal Education Liberal Arts/General Education Forum for Liberal Education Liberal Education Mathematics Journal for Research in Mathematics The Journal of Undergraduate The American Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics and Its Applications (UMAP) Monthly Magazine The College Mathematics Journal Canadian Journal ofHigher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 54 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, Music Journal of Research in Music Music Educators Journal Philosophy Teaching Physics & D. Roy Education Philosophy Physics Education Physics Teacher Physics Today Political Science Teaching Political Psychology Teaching of Science Science Psychology European Journal of Science Education Journal of College Science Teaching Journal of Research in Science Teaching Social Work Canadian Journal of Social Work Education Journal of Education for Social Work Sociology ASA Teaching Newsletter Teaching Sociology Teacher Education Australian Journal of Teacher Education Journal of Education for Teaching Journal of Teacher Education Cashin and Clegg (1994) developed a list of American periodicals on t e a c h i n g and p u b l i s h e d it in the Center Development's Idea Paper, No. 28, Periodicals for Faculty Evaluation Related to College and Teaching. The Center's address is Kansas State University, College Court Building, Manhattan, KS 66506-6001. Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996 The Scholarship of Teaching 55 Appendix B Where to present the Scholarship of Teaching: A Partial List General Conferences The Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Annual Conference each June; Location varies around Canada; For more information contact: Pat Lockhart Instructional Development Centre General Sciences Building, Room 217 McMaster University 1280 Main Street W. Hamilton, ON Canada L8S4K1 The Higher Education, Research and Development Society of Australasia HERDSA Membership c/o PBOBLARC PO Box 555 Campbellton, NSW, 2560 Australia Professional and Organizational Development (POD) Network c/o David Graf 15B Exhibit Hall South Iowa State University Ames, IA 50011 U.S.A. American Association for Higher Education (AAHE) One Dupont Circle, Suite 360 Washington, DC 20036-1110 U.S.A. telephone - 202-293-6440 fax - 202-293-0073 Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXVI-1,1996 56 J. Cunsolo, M. Elrick, A. Middleton, & D. Roy Improving University Teaching University of Maryland University College University Boulevard at Adelphi Road College Park, MD 20742-1659 U.S.A. Discipline Specific Within discipline conferences like the American Society of Agronomy, there are special sessions on teaching. Disciplines also have conferences specifically devoted to teaching. Notes 1 At the American Association of Higher Education's (AAHE) 1992 Forum of Exemplary Teaching, a disgruntled faculty member remarked that engaging in the scholarship of teaching looked like another way to increase each academic's work load. ^ Boyer (1990) unfortunately confuses the relationship of time and scholarship when he states, "At the very heart of the current debate [about the priority of teaching]...is the issue of faculty time" (p.xi). 3 The University of Guelph, one of the 16 universities in Ontario, has 760 faculty, 11,000 full-time and 2,000 part-time undergraduates, and 1,500 graduate students (Masters and Ph.D.). ^ Guelph faculty are not unionized. ^ This proviso in the Agreement agrees well with the requirement that scholarship is public. Canadian Journal of Higher Education Vol. XXV1-1,1996